O\u2026
\nKafan\u0131n ta i\u00e7ine s\u0131\u00e7ay\u0131m bu soruyu sordu\u011fun i\u00e7in!<\/p>\n
Ulannn h\u0131yar\u2026
\nBek\u00e2rl\u0131k sultanl\u0131kt\u0131r demi\u015fler. Ancak\u2026
\nAl\u0131\u015ft\u0131n m\u0131 kad\u0131n rahat\u0131na, keyfine\u2026
\nD\u00fczenine*
\nM\u00fcptelas\u0131 olursun, O ba\u015fka.<\/p>\n
Efendimmm\u2026
\nBenim soyad\u0131m\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131mak istemiyor musun?
\nEski k\u00f6ye yeni adet ha\u2026
\nHADI KIZIM\u2026
\nBa\u015fka kap\u0131ya!<\/p>\n
* KADIN, kad\u0131nsa<\/p>\n
„KADIN<\/strong><\/p>\n M\u00fcellif: Eski toplumlar ve medeniyetlere ait bilgiler, onlardan g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze intikal eden s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 say\u0131da belge \u00fczerinde yap\u0131lan \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalara dayand\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan o d\u00f6nemler hakk\u0131nda genel yarg\u0131larda bulunmak kolay de\u011fildir. Bu zorluk, mahall\u00ee unsurlara ve insan\u00ee \u00f6zelliklere de ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak il\u00e2ve bir de\u011fi\u015fkenlik g\u00f6steren kad\u0131n konusundaki telakki ve uygulamalar s\u00f6z konusu olunca daha da b\u00fcy\u00fcr. Ayr\u0131ca eski toplumlarda kad\u0131n\u0131n de\u011feri ve konumu hususunda yarg\u0131da bulunurken tarihsel ba\u011flam ve olay\u0131n kendine has \u015fartlar\u0131 g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edilip yeni d\u00f6nemlerden al\u0131nan formel baz\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fctlerle de\u011ferlendirme yap\u0131lmas\u0131, yani geriye do\u011fru tarih in\u015fas\u0131 da isabetli olmayacakt\u0131r. Bundan dolay\u0131 kad\u0131n konusunda insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n tarih\u00ee tecr\u00fcbesi yans\u0131t\u0131l\u0131rken an\u0131lan yan\u0131lma ve s\u00fcbjektivite pay\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcnde bulundurmak, yap\u0131lan de\u011ferlendirmeleri de bu g\u00f6zle izlemek gerekir.<\/p>\n Tarih boyunca \u00e7e\u015fitli toplumlarda kad\u0131n\u0131n farkl\u0131 stat\u00fclerde bulundu\u011fu, anaerkil aile yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n ge\u00e7erli oldu\u011fu baz\u0131 ilkel topluluklarda kutsalla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131, baz\u0131lar\u0131nda ise erkeklerle e\u015fit stat\u00fc ve haklara sahip bulundu\u011fu, ataerkil topluluklarda \u00e7o\u011funlukla erke\u011fe g\u00f6re ikinci derecede bir stat\u00fc ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve hatta baz\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrlerde hemen hemen hi\u00e7bir hak ve de\u011fere sahip olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 genel bir tesbit olarak s\u00f6ylenebilir. Ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta ana soyunun h\u00e2kim oldu\u011fu anaerkil aile tipinin mevcudiyetini savunanlara g\u00f6re insan hayat\u0131n\u0131n kayna\u011f\u0131 olmas\u0131, do\u011furganl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve verimlili\u011fi sebebiyle kad\u0131n il\u00e2hla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, tabiatla olan benzerli\u011fi sebebiyle tabiat\u0131n sembol\u00fc say\u0131larak verimlilik il\u00e2hesi olarak tasvir edilmi\u015f, b\u00f6ylece bereket tanr\u0131\u00e7as\u0131 veya ana tanr\u0131\u00e7a k\u00fclt\u00fc olu\u015fmu\u015f, neticede Kybele, Artemis, Demeter, Astarte, Isis, Afrodit veya Ven\u00fcs adlar\u0131yla ki\u015file\u015ftirilerek tap\u0131nma konusu olmu\u015ftur (EAm., XI, 108-109).<\/p>\n Bereket ve verimlilik sembol\u00fc olan ana tanr\u0131\u00e7a k\u00fclt\u00fc Eski Anadolu\u2019da yayg\u0131nd\u0131. Hitit sonras\u0131 Frigler, Anadolu\u2019nun en eski k\u00fclt\u00fc olan \u201cana tanr\u0131\u00e7a\u201dy\u0131 benimsemi\u015f, Ge\u00e7 Hitit d\u00f6neminin ba\u015f tanr\u0131\u00e7as\u0131 Kubaba, Frig d\u00f6neminde Kybele\u2019ye d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Yunan d\u00f6neminde Kybele\u2019nin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra Artemis gibi baz\u0131 Yunan tanr\u0131\u00e7alar\u0131 da ana tanr\u0131\u00e7an\u0131n nitelikleriyle donanm\u0131\u015f, Roma d\u00f6neminde Kybele ve k\u00fclt\u00fc Roma\u2019ya ihra\u00e7 edilmi\u015ftir. H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k\u2019taki tanr\u0131y\u0131 do\u011furan ana Meryem (Theotokos) inanc\u0131nda da Neoliti\u011fin ana tanr\u0131\u00e7a fikri yatmaktad\u0131r. Efes Konsili\u2019nde Hz. Meryem\u2019in stat\u00fcs\u00fc tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve Tanr\u0131 do\u011furan oldu\u011fu kabul edilmi\u015ftir. Bu doktrinle H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k, Bat\u0131 Anadolu\u2019da yayg\u0131n olan Tanr\u0131\u00e7a Artemis inanc\u0131n\u0131 h\u0131ristiyan\u00ee bir kisveye b\u00fcr\u00fcnd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f olmaktad\u0131r. Di\u011fer taraftan ba\u015f\u0131 h\u00e2leli Meryem ve kuca\u011f\u0131nda oturan \u00ces\u00e2 tasvirleriyle ba\u015f\u0131nda kurs \u015feklinde ba\u015fl\u0131\u011f\u0131, kuca\u011f\u0131nda oturan \u00e7ocu\u011fu ile Hititler\u2019in Arinna \u015fehri g\u00fcne\u015f tanr\u0131\u00e7as\u0131 tasviri aras\u0131nda fazla bir fark yoktur (Uzuno\u011flu, s. 16-24). Anaerkilli\u011fin ilk aile \u015fekli oldu\u011funu savunanlara g\u00f6re ataerkil aileye ge\u00e7i\u015fle birlikte kad\u0131nlar bu sayg\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 yitirmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n \u0130nsan\u0131n yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131 konusunda bilinen en eski izah denemeleri olan Sumer ve B\u00e2bil yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f efsanesinde insan\u0131n tanr\u0131lara hizmet i\u00e7in ve topraktan bi\u00e7imlendirildi\u011fi belirtilmekteyse de kad\u0131n\u0131n yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131na dair bilgilere rastlanmaz (Hooke, s. 46-47; Kramer, s. 131-141). Bununla birlikte Hammurabi kanunlar\u0131nda kad\u0131n haklar\u0131na, \u00f6zellikle de evlilikle al\u00e2kal\u0131 y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklere dair kad\u0131n lehine yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir k\u0131s\u0131m d\u00fczenlemeler mevcut olup bunlar b\u00fcy\u00fck oranda yahudi \u015feriat\u0131ndaki kurallarla benzerlik hatta ayniyet i\u00e7indedir. Kad\u0131n\u0131n m\u00fclkiyet ve miras hakk\u0131, kocas\u0131 onu ihmal etti\u011finde baba evine d\u00f6nme hakk\u0131 vard\u0131r. Monogami esast\u0131r, ancak k\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131k halinde ikinci e\u015f al\u0131nabilir. Bo\u015fanma halinde kad\u0131n kendi \u00e7eyizinin ve \u00e7ocuklara bakmak i\u00e7in kocas\u0131n\u0131n mal\u0131n\u0131n bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n sahibi olur.<\/p>\n Anadolu\u2019nun gerek Asur koloni \u00e7a\u011f\u0131nda gerek Hitit d\u00f6neminde kad\u0131n \u00d6n Asya\u2019daki hemcinslerinden daha iyi durumda idi. Ticar\u00ee hayatta aktif rol alan kad\u0131n meden\u00ee hukuk kurallar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan erke\u011fe e\u015fitti. Aile monogami esas\u0131na g\u00f6re kurulmu\u015ftu. \u0130kinci bir e\u015f ancak \u00e7ocuk oluncaya kadar ge\u00e7ici bir s\u00fcre i\u00e7in s\u00f6z konusuydu. Evlenme ve bo\u015fanma resm\u00ee s\u00f6zle\u015fme ile yap\u0131l\u0131yor ve kad\u0131na evlili\u011fi bozma ve bo\u015fanma hakk\u0131 tan\u0131n\u0131yordu. Bo\u015fanma halinde sahip olunan mal taraflar aras\u0131nda e\u015fit olarak b\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fcyordu.<\/p>\n Hitit yasalar\u0131nda kral ve krali\u00e7e e\u015fitti. Kade\u015f Antla\u015fmas\u0131\u2019nda Hitit kral\u0131n\u0131n yan\u0131nda krali\u00e7enin de m\u00fchr\u00fc bulunmaktad\u0131r. Hitit din ve k\u00fclt \u00e7evresinde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u00e7ok yayg\u0131n i\u015flevleri vard\u0131r. Baz\u0131 halk bayramlar\u0131nda devleti yaln\u0131z ba\u015f\u0131na krali\u00e7e temsil etmektedir. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli unvanlarla tap\u0131nak hizmetlerinde bulunduklar\u0131, Hitit dininde rahibelerin ve kad\u0131n memurlar\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck rol oynad\u0131klar\u0131 bilinmektedir.<\/p>\n Eski Yunan\u2019da kad\u0131nlar\u0131n hi\u00e7bir politik hak ve yetkisi yoktu. Miras erkek \u00e7ocu\u011fa d\u00fc\u015ferdi. Tek kad\u0131nla evlilik temel ilkelerden biriydi. Evli kad\u0131n\u0131n sadakatsizli\u011fi b\u00fcy\u00fck su\u00e7tu. Erkek hi\u00e7bir sebep olmadan kar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 bo\u015fayabiliyor, kad\u0131n da diledi\u011finde bo\u015fanabiliyor ve \u00e7eyizini geri alabiliyordu. Kad\u0131nlar din\u00ee \u00e2yinlere kat\u0131l\u0131r ancak erkeklerden ayr\u0131 otururlard\u0131. Yunan\/Helen d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda bir kad\u0131n i\u00e7in en y\u00fcksek ve onur verici i\u015f rahibe olmakt\u0131. Rahibelik devletin tan\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00fcksek bir memuriyetti ve rahibelerin \u00e7o\u011funu evli kad\u0131nlar te\u015fkil ediyordu.<\/p>\n Roma\u2019da kad\u0131nlara kamu hukuku alan\u0131nda hi\u00e7bir hak tan\u0131nmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131, devlet kurumlar\u0131nda g\u00f6rev alam\u0131yorlard\u0131. \u00d6zel hukuk alan\u0131nda da haklar\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131tl\u0131 idi. Kad\u0131nlar rahibe olabiliyordu ve Vesta rahibelerinin ayr\u0131 bir stat\u00fcs\u00fc vard\u0131. Kad\u0131n evlenerek baba h\u00e2kimiyetinden koca h\u00e2kimiyetine ge\u00e7iyordu ve kocan\u0131n mutlak h\u00e2kimiyeti vard\u0131. Monogaminin esas oldu\u011fu Roma\u2019da aileye \u00f6nem veriliyor, erke\u011fin zina eden kar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 affetmesine m\u00fcsaade edilmiyordu. Kad\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 bo\u015fanmay\u0131 hakl\u0131 k\u0131l\u0131yor ve sadece erkek bo\u015fayabiliyordu. K\u0131z evl\u00e2t aile dinini devam ettiremeyece\u011fi i\u00e7in pek makbul say\u0131lm\u0131yordu (Paribeni, s. 40-46, 95).<\/p>\n Rig Veda d\u00f6nemi sonras\u0131nda Hinduizm erkek h\u00e2kim bir karakter kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Brahmanalar\u2019da ve Upani\u015fadlar\u2019da s\u00f6z konusu edilen e\u011fitimdeki ay\u0131r\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131k ve z\u00e2hidlik anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131, bilgi ve kurtulu\u015f yolunun sadece erkeklerin tekelinde oldu\u011fu fikrini yerle\u015ftirdi. Eski Hintliler\u2019de kad\u0131n\u0131n hi\u00e7 de\u011feri yoktu. Kad\u0131n k\u0131s\u0131r olur veya hep k\u0131z do\u011furursa kocas\u0131 onu b\u0131rakabiliyordu. Manu Kanunn\u00e2mesi\u2019ne g\u00f6re kad\u0131n\u0131n vazifeleri \u00e7ocuk do\u011furmak, yeti\u015ftirmek ve ev i\u015flerine bakmakt\u0131r. Kad\u0131n kendi ba\u015f\u0131na buyruk olmamal\u0131, babas\u0131n\u0131n, evlendikten sonra da kocas\u0131n\u0131n s\u00f6z\u00fcnden \u00e7\u0131kmamal\u0131, dul kal\u0131nca ise o\u011fluna itaat etmelidir (Sharma, s. 100-101).<\/p>\n B\u00fct\u00fcn Budist ekollerde erkek h\u00e2kimiyeti s\u00f6z konusudur. \u00d6nceleri kad\u0131nlar\u0131n karmik sistem olarak erkeklerden daha a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 olduklar\u0131, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla y\u00fcce mertebelere ula\u015famayacaklar\u0131 kabul edilirken sonralar\u0131 bu inan\u0131\u015f de\u011fi\u015fmi\u015f, \u00e7e\u015fitli din\u00ee ekollerde kad\u0131nlar \u00f6\u011fretmen ve ruhan\u00ee rehber olabilmi\u015flerdir. M\u00fckemmel hikmeti di\u015fi kabul eden Budizm sembolizmi ve di\u015fi Bodhisattvalar\u2019\u0131n olduk\u00e7a pop\u00fcler olu\u015fu, Tibet ve Do\u011fu Asya Budist panteonlar\u0131ndaki tanr\u0131\u00e7alar kad\u0131na sayg\u0131n\u0131n daha da artt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir (a.g.e., s. 131-133). Jainizm\u2019de Svetambaralar\u2019\u0131n aksine Digambaralar\u2019da kad\u0131nlar\u0131n m\u00e2bede girmesi yasakt\u0131r. Konf\u00fc\u00e7yanizm genelde ataerkil bir dindir, bu sebeple kad\u0131n ikinci s\u0131radad\u0131r ve \u201cBe\u015f Klasikler\u201d denilen kutsal metinler kad\u0131nlara olumsuz yakla\u015f\u0131r.<\/p>\n Eski T\u00fcrkler\u2019de ataerkil aile tipi h\u00e2kim ise de kad\u0131n \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n\u0131n di\u011fer kavimlerine g\u00f6re daha iyi bir konuma sahipti<\/em>. Poligami olmakla birlikte monogami yayg\u0131nd\u0131<\/ins> ve e\u015f se\u00e7mede kad\u0131nlar da s\u00f6z sahibi idi. Hakan bilge hatunla birlikte devleti y\u00f6netmekteydi. Kad\u0131n\u0131n kocas\u0131ndan ayr\u0131 mal edinme hakk\u0131 oldu\u011fu gibi sosyal ve din\u00ee hayatta \u00f6nemli roller \u00fcstlenmi\u015fti ve din\u00ee merasimlere kat\u0131l\u0131r, hatta ba\u015fkanl\u0131k ederdi (Arsal, s. 338; Ediz, s. 15-21; TA, XXI, 91-92).<\/strong><\/p>\n Yahudilik\u2019te Kad\u0131n. Yahudilik\u2019te kad\u0131n\u0131n rol\u00fc eski d\u00f6nemlerden beri var olan ataerkil toplum yap\u0131s\u0131na uygun olarak \u015fekillenmi\u015f, sosyal fonksiyonlar cinsiyete g\u00f6re tesis edilmi\u015ftir. Tevrat\u2019ta kad\u0131n\u0131n yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131yla ilgili iki k\u0131ssadan birincisine g\u00f6re kad\u0131n erke\u011fe e\u015fittir ve ikisi de Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n s\u00fbretinde yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (Tekv\u00een, 1\/26-27). \u0130kinci k\u0131ssaya g\u00f6re ise (Tekv\u00een, 2\/21-25) kad\u0131n, erke\u011fin kaburga kemi\u011finden ve onun yaln\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 gidermek \u00fczere uygun bir yard\u0131mc\u0131 olarak yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (Tekv\u00een, 2\/21-22). Kad\u0131n\u0131n erkekten yarat\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n sebebi ayn\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcn par\u00e7alar\u0131 olmalar\u0131 dolay\u0131s\u0131yla birbirlerine ba\u011flanmalar\u0131 (Tekv\u00een, 2\/23-24), par\u00e7a b\u00fct\u00fcne t\u00e2bi oldu\u011fu gibi kad\u0131n\u0131n erke\u011fe t\u00e2bi olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Bu t\u00e2bi olu\u015f, kad\u0131n\u0131n yasak meyveyi yemesi ve e\u015fine de yedirmesi sebebiyle daha da \u00f6n plana \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Tanr\u0131 emre itaatsizli\u011fi y\u00fcz\u00fcnden kad\u0131n\u0131 cezaland\u0131rm\u0131\u015f, zahmetini ve gebeli\u011fini daha da \u00e7o\u011faltaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, a\u011fr\u0131 ile evl\u00e2t do\u011furaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, arzusunun kocas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve kocas\u0131n\u0131n da kendisine h\u00e2kim olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bildirmi\u015ftir (Tekv\u00een, 3\/16). Kad\u0131n\u0131n erkekten sonra ve ondan bir par\u00e7a olarak yarat\u0131lmas\u0131, erke\u011fin kad\u0131na ad koymas\u0131 erke\u011fin h\u00e2kimiyeti ve kad\u0131n\u0131n ona boyun e\u011fmesi olarak yorumlanmaktad\u0131r. Kit\u00e2b-\u0131 Mukaddes gelene\u011finde erkek kad\u0131n\u0131n efendisidir. \u0130br\u00e2n\u00eece\u2019de kocaya verilen isimlerden biri de \u201cbaal\u201ddir ki efendi anlam\u0131ndad\u0131r.<\/p>\n Kad\u0131n\u0131n birinci g\u00f6revi ve varl\u0131k sebebi \u00e7ocuk do\u011furmak (Tekv\u00een, 3\/16) ve yuvaya bakmakt\u0131r. Koca ve \u00e7ocuklar iyi bir e\u015f ve anne i\u00e7in mutluluk (S\u00fcleyman\u2019\u0131n Meselleri, 31\/28), kad\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131s\u0131r olmas\u0131 ise k\u0131nanma ve \u00fcz\u00fcnt\u00fc sebebidir (Tekv\u00een, 11\/30; 25\/21; 29\/31). Anne olarak kad\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6zel bir yeri vard\u0131r ve ona sayg\u0131 g\u00f6sterilmesi istenmektedir (\u00c7\u0131k\u0131\u015f, 20\/12; Levililer, 20\/9). Din\u00ee hukukta kad\u0131n, haklar\u0131, g\u00f6revleri ve \u00e7e\u015fitli kad\u0131nl\u0131k halleriyle \u00f6zel bir hukuk\u00ee stat\u00fcdedir ve bu sebeple de erkeklerle ortak genel h\u00fck\u00fcmler d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda farkl\u0131 kurallara t\u00e2bidir.<\/p>\n \u0130badette kad\u0131n\u0131n rol\u00fc ikinci derecededir. Kad\u0131n din g\u00f6revlisi olamaz. Yahudilik\u2019te kad\u0131nlar cemaatten say\u0131lmazlar ve cemaatle ibadete i\u015ftirak edemez sadece uzaktan izleyebilirler. Kad\u0131nlar cenaze merasimine de kat\u0131lamazlar. Kad\u0131n\u0131n \u00e2det g\u00f6rme ve \u00e7ocuk do\u011furmas\u0131yla ilgili \u00f6zel kirlilik s\u00fcresi ibadet yapmas\u0131na engeldir ve temizlenme kurallar\u0131 s\u00f6z konusudur. Y\u0131ll\u0131k \u00fc\u00e7 hac sadece erkeklere \u015fartt\u0131r (\u00c7\u0131k\u0131\u015f, 23\/17, 34\/23; Tesniye, 16\/16). Kad\u0131n da erkek gibi adak adayabilir (Say\u0131lar, 6\/2), fakat babas\u0131n\u0131n veya e\u015finin iznini almas\u0131 \u015fartt\u0131r (Say\u0131lar, 30\/4-16). Erke\u011fin belli durumlarda kar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 bo\u015fama hakk\u0131 vard\u0131r. Tevrat\u2019ta erke\u011fin, evlendi\u011fi kad\u0131nda utan\u0131lacak bir \u015fey buldu\u011funda e\u015fini bo\u015fayabilece\u011fi belirtilmektedir (Tesniye, 24\/1-4). Talmudik d\u00f6nem bo\u015fanma i\u00e7in baz\u0131 \u015fartlar getirmi\u015ftir ve Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u2019lardan itibaren bo\u015fanma her iki taraf\u0131n iste\u011fiyle olmaktad\u0131r. Kad\u0131n kocas\u0131ndan ve erkek karde\u015fi varsa babas\u0131ndan miras\u00e7\u0131 olamaz (Say\u0131lar, 27\/8-11). Kad\u0131n\u0131n \u015fahitli\u011fi ge\u00e7erli de\u011fildir (EJd., XVI, 586; Dictionnaire encyclopedique du Juda\u00efsme, s. 321).<\/p>\n Tevrat kad\u0131nlara erkekler gibi giyinmeyi yasaklamaktad\u0131r (Tesniye, 22\/5). Di\u011fer taraftan kad\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6rtmesi gerekmekte, kad\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7ma ise k\u00e2hin taraf\u0131ndan bir a\u015fa\u011f\u0131lama olarak yap\u0131lmakta (Say\u0131lar, 5\/18), halk i\u00e7inde ba\u015f\u0131 a\u00e7ma k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fcc\u00fc bir davran\u0131\u015f olarak kabul edilmektedir (\u0130\u015faya, 3\/17). Yahudi bilginlerine g\u00f6re sa\u00e7\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6rg\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6steren evli kad\u0131n cezaland\u0131r\u0131lmal\u0131d\u0131r. Talmud\u2019a g\u00f6re bir kimse halk i\u00e7inde ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7an kar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 bo\u015fayabilir, baz\u0131lar\u0131na g\u00f6re ise ba\u015f\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131k kad\u0131n\u0131n bulundu\u011fu evde kutsal metinlerin okunmas\u0131 yasakt\u0131r (a.g.e., s. 283-284). Kad\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6rtmesi \u015fart olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen pe\u00e7e takma zorunlulu\u011fu yoktur.<\/p>\n Bu yasaklama ve k\u0131s\u0131tlamalara ra\u011fmen kad\u0131nlar sosyal faaliyetlere, bayramlara ve t\u00f6renlere kat\u0131l\u0131yorlard\u0131 (\u00c7\u0131k\u0131\u015f, 15\/20-21; 35\/22-29; 38\/8; II. Samuel, 6\/19, 20). Misafir kabul edebiliyor, ancak yabanc\u0131larla ayn\u0131 sofraya oturmuyorlard\u0131 (Tekv\u00een, 18\/9). Yahudi \u015feriat\u0131 kad\u0131n\u0131 \u201c\u015fofar\u201d \u00fcflemek, \u201csukkah\u201dta oturmak, ibadet elbisesi ta\u015f\u0131mak, d\u00fczenli dualar\u0131 okumak gibi zamana ba\u011fl\u0131 emirlerden muaf tutmaktad\u0131r. Burada aslolan ailev\u00ee y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklerdir ve kad\u0131n kendisini ailev\u00ee y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklerden al\u0131koyacak emirlerden muaf tutulmaktad\u0131r. Fakat bunun Hanukah kandilini yakmak, Purim mecellesini okumak, yo\u011furdu\u011fu hamurdan bir par\u00e7as\u0131n\u0131 hahamlara vermek, cumartesi mumlar\u0131n\u0131 yakmak gibi istisnalar\u0131 da vard\u0131r ve kad\u0131n ailenin temizlik kurallar\u0131na riayet etmekle emrolunmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n Miriam, Deborah, Hulda gibi peygamberler veya Ruth, Ester gibi \u00f6nemli rol \u00fcstlenmi\u015f kad\u0131nlar da olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen \u0130sr\u00e2il cemiyetinde kad\u0131n kamu alan\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda b\u0131rak\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kit\u00e2b-\u0131 Mukaddes hukukunda poligami tasdik edilirken (Tesniye, 21\/15) \u00c2dem-Havv\u00e2 k\u0131ssas\u0131 monogaminin ideal oldu\u011fu, ancak \u201cona h\u00e2kim olacak\u201d (Tekv\u00een, 3\/16) h\u00fckm\u00fc icab\u0131 kad\u0131n\u0131n kocas\u0131ndan daha a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 bir seviyede bulunmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fi anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 h\u00e2kimdir.<\/p>\n Klasik yahudi literat\u00fcr\u00fc kad\u0131nlarla ilgili farkl\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fler sunmaktad\u0131r ve bu tav\u0131r farkl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 Rabbinik literat\u00fcrde de vard\u0131r. Her g\u00fcn sabah ibadetinde okunan duadaki, \u201cRabbim, beni kad\u0131n yaratmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n i\u00e7in sana \u015f\u00fck\u00fcrler olsun!\u201d ifadesi yan\u0131nda rabbilerin poligamiyi uygulamad\u0131klar\u0131 da bilinmektedir. Kad\u0131nlar Tevrat tetkikinden muaft\u0131r. Talmud\u2019da Tanr\u0131\u2019n\u0131n, \u00e7e\u015fitli k\u00f6t\u00fc huylardan uzak durmas\u0131, m\u00fctevazi olmas\u0131 ve b\u00f6b\u00fcrlenmemesi i\u00e7in kad\u0131n\u0131 \u00c2dem\u2019in ba\u015fka bir organ\u0131ndan de\u011fil de kaburga kemi\u011finden yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 belirtilir; ayr\u0131ca kad\u0131nlar geveze, a\u00e7 g\u00f6zl\u00fc, k\u0131skan\u00e7, kavgac\u0131, g\u00fcvenilmez ve ba\u015ftan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131c\u0131 gibi s\u0131fatlarla yerilir.<\/p>\n Talmud sonras\u0131 d\u00f6nemde kad\u0131nlara \u015fefkat ve merhametle muamele edilmesi, ihtimam g\u00f6sterilmesi gibi hususlar \u00fczerinde durulmu\u015f, fakat \u00f6\u011frenim kap\u0131lar\u0131 sadece erkeklere a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Maimonides\u2019e g\u00f6re kad\u0131n kamuya ait bir g\u00f6reve tayin edilemez. Ona g\u00f6re bir kad\u0131n kocas\u0131n\u0131n ellerini ve ayaklar\u0131n\u0131 y\u0131kamak, ona hizmet etmek gibi g\u00f6revlerini yerine getirmeyi reddederse sopayla cezaland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r (EJd., XVI, 623-628).<\/p>\n G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde yahudi muhitinde kad\u0131nla ilgili farkl\u0131 yeni yorumlar getirme e\u011filimleri de s\u00f6z konusudur. Ortodoks Yahudilik d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki kad\u0131nlar gittik\u00e7e artan oranda erkeklerle e\u015fit rol oynamay\u0131 ve Yahudili\u011fin kad\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 tavr\u0131n\u0131n yeniden g\u00f6zden ge\u00e7irilmesini istemektedirler. Ortodoks Yahudilik ise kad\u0131nla ilgili kurallarda k\u00f6kl\u00fc de\u011fi\u015fiklikler yapma arzusuna sahip de\u011fildir. Ancak baz\u0131 Ortodoks \u00e7evreler kad\u0131n\u0131n ibadete, Tevrat tetkikine kat\u0131l\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 artt\u0131rm\u0131\u015flar ve sinagogun b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerini yeniden d\u00fczenlemi\u015flerdir. Amerika\u2019daki baz\u0131 sinagoglarda okuyucu kad\u0131nlardan olu\u015fan korolar kabul edilmi\u015ftir. Kad\u0131nlar Tevrat okumaya ve koroya i\u015ftirak edebilmekte, hatta daha az olmak \u00fczere rabbi bile olabilmektedirler. \u0130srail\u2019de tepkilere ra\u011fmen rabbileri se\u00e7ecek kurula kad\u0131nlar da al\u0131nmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n Yahudilik\u2019te Ortodoks olmayan \u00e7evreler yeni \u015fartlara ve feminizmin etkisine daha a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r ve bunlarda kad\u0131nlar yahudi ibadetindeki rollerini daha da artt\u0131rmakta ve sa\u011flamla\u015ft\u0131rmaktad\u0131rlar. Amerika Birle\u015fik Devletleri\u2019nde Hebrew Union College 1972\u2019de ilk kad\u0131n haham\u0131 tayin etmi\u015ftir. Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, 1967\u2019deki kurulu\u015fundan bu yana Rabbinik et\u00fctlere kad\u0131nlar\u0131 da almakta ve 1974\u2019ten beri kar\u0131 koca rabbiler orada g\u00f6rev yapmaktad\u0131r. 1983\u2019te Jewish Theological Seminary Rabbinik et\u00fctlere kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kabul\u00fcn\u00fc onaylam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130ngiltere 1985\u2019te, Fransa 1990\u2019da bir kad\u0131n\u0131 hahaml\u0131\u011fa getirmi\u015ftir (Dictionnaire encyclopedique du Juda\u00efsme, s. 403-405).<\/p>\n H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k\u2019ta Kad\u0131n. \u0130nciller\u2019de Hz. Meryem ba\u015fta olmak \u00fczere muhtelif kad\u0131nlardan bahsedilmektedir. \u00ces\u00e2 sadece s\u00f6zleriyle de\u011fil davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131yla da kad\u0131nlar\u0131 y\u00fcceltmi\u015f, \u0130ncil\u2019i yayma i\u015fine se\u00e7ti\u011fi kad\u0131nlar\u0131 da katm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Yeni Ahid\u2019de erkekler gibi kad\u0131nlar da Mes\u00eeh\u2019in doktrinine muhatapt\u0131r ve onu dinleyip pe\u015finden gitmi\u015f (Matta, 14\/21, 15\/28; Yuhanna, 4\/7-42), \u00ces\u00e2 Mes\u00eeh vas\u0131tas\u0131yla \u015fifa bulmu\u015f ve g\u00fcnahlar\u0131 ba\u011f\u0131\u015flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (Matta, 8\/14-15; Luka, 7\/48-50; 13\/13). Yeni Ahid\u2019de bir taraftan cins\u00ee hayat ve evlilik iyi g\u00f6r\u00fclmemekte, bek\u00e2retin \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ve evlenmemenin fazileti vurgulanmakta, di\u011fer taraftan poligami ve bo\u015fanma yasaklanmaktad\u0131r (Matta, 1\/23;19\/12).<\/p>\n Pavlus evlenmemenin ideal oldu\u011funu, ancak hem zinadan korunmak hem de \u00e7ocuk yapmak i\u00e7in evlili\u011fin olabilece\u011fini ifade etmektedir (Korintoslular\u2019a Birinci Mektup, 7\/1-7). Ona g\u00f6re erkek kad\u0131n i\u00e7in de\u011fil kad\u0131n erkek i\u00e7in yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve bu sebeple kad\u0131nlar rabbe ba\u011fl\u0131 oldu\u011fu gibi kocalar\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 olmal\u0131d\u0131r. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc Mes\u00eeh nas\u0131l kilisenin ba\u015f\u0131 ise erkek de kad\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131d\u0131r (Efesoslular\u2019a, 5\/22-24). Pavlus\u2019a g\u00f6re b\u00e2kirelik \u00fcst\u00fcn bir m\u00fckemmellik ve fedak\u00e2rl\u0131kt\u0131r (Korintoslular\u2019a Birinci Mektup, 7\/25-40), fakat evlilik \u00ces\u00e2 taraf\u0131ndan bir din\u00ee s\u0131r seviyesine y\u00fckseltilmi\u015ftir (Efesoslular\u2019a, 5\/31-32). Kad\u0131n erke\u011fin ger\u00e7ek arkada\u015f\u0131d\u0131r. \u00ces\u00e2\u2019n\u0131n, kilisesine kar\u015f\u0131 yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi erkek onu sevmeli, ihtimam g\u00f6stermeli, himaye etmelidir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc onunla b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fmektedir (Korintoslular\u2019a Birinci Mektup, 11\/9, 11). Pavlus kad\u0131na \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclmez bir ba\u011fla ba\u011fland\u0131\u011f\u0131 kocas\u0131na itaati tavsiye eder (Korintoslular\u2019a Birinci Mektup, 7\/2-4; 10-11; Efesoslular\u2019a, 5\/22). O kurtulu\u015funu annelik g\u00f6revlerini yaparak, \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n\u0131 imanl\u0131 yeti\u015ftirerek (Titus, 2\/4-5), iyi i\u015fler yaparak (Timoteos\u2019a Birinci Mektup, 2\/10,15) sa\u011flayabilir. Pavlus kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kilise toplant\u0131lar\u0131na kat\u0131labileceklerini, ancak s\u00f6ze kar\u0131\u015fmamalar\u0131n\u0131, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc kad\u0131n erke\u011fe ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in \u00f6\u011frenmek istediklerini evde kocalar\u0131ndan sorabileceklerini, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6rtmelerinin zorunlu oldu\u011funu ve yaln\u0131z bu \u015fekilde kilisede dua edebileceklerini (Korintoslular\u2019a Birinci Mektup, 11\/5-6, 9-10; 14\/34-35) belirtmekte, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n g\u00f6steri\u015fsiz giyinmelerini, utan\u0131lmayacak bi\u00e7imde ve ak\u0131ll\u0131ca s\u00fcslenmelerini \u00f6\u011f\u00fctlemektedir (Timeteos\u2019a Birinci Mektup, 2\/9). Hz. \u00ces\u00e2 zaman\u0131nda oldu\u011fu gibi hav\u00e2riler d\u00f6neminde de kad\u0131nlar s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde de olsa cemaate yard\u0131m ve hizmet i\u015fini s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015flerdir. Baz\u0131lar\u0131 yetenekleri sebebiyle \u00e7e\u015fitli din\u00ee g\u00f6revler \u00fcstlenmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n Kilise babalar\u0131n\u0131n kad\u0131nlara dair g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri genelde olumsuzdur. H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcnde kad\u0131n yasak meyveyi \u00c2dem\u2019e yedirerek onun cennetten kovulmas\u0131na, b\u00f6ylece insan neslinin g\u00fcnahk\u00e2r olmas\u0131na sebep olmu\u015ftur. Kad\u0131n yery\u00fcz\u00fcne g\u00fcnah\u0131 getiren, erke\u011fi mahveden, ba\u015ftan \u00e7\u0131karand\u0131r. Bu sebeple kilise babalar\u0131 evlili\u011fi zorunlu bir k\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fck olarak g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015flerdir. H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ilk d\u00f6neminde kad\u0131nlar sessizlik, iffetlilik, yard\u0131m severlik ve sadece dua edicilik y\u00f6nleriyle \u00f6n planda idiler, ancak daha sonra kayg\u0131lar dile getirilmi\u015ftir. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, \u0130skenderiyeli Clement, Origene ve Tertullian gibi ilk kilise babalar\u0131 kad\u0131n\u0131 melekleri ba\u015ftan \u00e7\u0131karmak ve insan soyunu k\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fc\u011fe itmekle \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ftirdiler. Onlar Havv\u00e2\u2019y\u0131, ilk i\u015flenen g\u00fcnah sonucu sadece \u015fehveti de\u011fil \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc de d\u00fcnyaya sokmas\u0131 sebebiyle ay\u0131plarlar. Onlar\u0131n kad\u0131nlarla ilgili s\u00f6zleri, \u00e2deta kad\u0131n cinsine kar\u015f\u0131 bir d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131k ve a\u011f\u0131r hakaretler i\u00e7erecek olumsuzluklar ta\u015f\u0131r. Aziz Ioannes Chrysostomos veya Augusti\u2019nin bu konudaki s\u00f6zleri de b\u00f6yledir. Nitekim Aziz Augustin kad\u0131nlar\u0131 k\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fck dolu, k\u0131skan\u00e7, karars\u0131z ve tutars\u0131z, b\u00fct\u00fcn tart\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n, kavgalar\u0131n ve haks\u0131zl\u0131klar\u0131n kayna\u011f\u0131 olarak takdim eder ve evlilikteki ili\u015fkiyi de g\u00fcnah olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcr. Nitekim Papa Gregoire, kar\u0131 kocalar\u0131n ili\u015fkilerinin de g\u00fcnahtan h\u00e2li olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ifade etmi\u015ftir. Katolik kilisesindeki nik\u00e2h t\u00f6reninde okunan duada, \u201cG\u00fcnahla d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm annemin karn\u0131na, g\u00fcnah i\u015flemi\u015f annem bana gebe kal\u0131rken\u201d denilmesi bu anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. Cins\u00ee ili\u015fkinin g\u00fcnah say\u0131lmas\u0131 evlilikten uzakla\u015f\u0131lmas\u0131na sebep olmu\u015f, II. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren kutsal b\u00e2kireler kurumu ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f, bunlar kendilerini b\u00e2kire olarak ya\u015famaya ve kiliseye hizmete adam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Kutsal b\u00e2kireleri kad\u0131n m\u00fcnzeviler izlemi\u015f ve b\u00f6ylece kad\u0131n manast\u0131rlar\u0131 olu\u015fmu\u015ftur. Manast\u0131ra kapanan rahibeler temizlik sembol\u00fc olan Hz. \u00ces\u00e2\u2019n\u0131n e\u015fleri olacaklard\u0131r. Hz. \u00ces\u00e2 temizlik sembol\u00fcd\u00fcr, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Hz. Meryem onu cins\u00ee ili\u015fkiye girmeden do\u011furmu\u015ftur. \u015eu halde yap\u0131lacak tek \u015fey Meryem gibi temiz ve iffetli kalmakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n Orta\u00e7a\u011f h\u0131ristiyan d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda kad\u0131n ve evlilik \u00f6ylesine k\u00f6t\u00fclenmi\u015ftir ki M\u00e2con Konsili\u2019nde (585) kad\u0131n\u0131n ruhunun olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Buna ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak o d\u00f6nemde kad\u0131n\u0131n sosyal hayattaki durumu daha da k\u00f6t\u00fcle\u015fmi\u015f, XII. as\u0131rdan itibaren Bat\u0131\u2019da b\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fc ve cad\u0131 av\u0131 ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f, pek \u00e7ok kad\u0131n cinlerle ili\u015fkisi oldu\u011fu iddias\u0131yla yak\u0131lm\u0131\u015f veya suda bo\u011fulmu\u015ftur. Orta\u00e7a\u011f boyunca h\u0131ristiyan d\u00fcnyada, \u00f6zellikle de kilise muhitinde yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f hik\u00e2yesinin temel al\u0131narak b\u00fct\u00fcn kad\u0131nlar\u0131n insano\u011flunun d\u00fc\u015f\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne sebebiyet verdi\u011fi kabul edilen Havv\u00e2 ile \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ftirilmesi ve ikinci derecede varl\u0131klar olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclmesi, di\u011fer taraftan Havv\u00e2\u2019n\u0131n antitezi olarak bir ba\u015fka kad\u0131n\u0131n, Meryem anan\u0131n \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131l\u0131p onun tanr\u0131 annesi olarak takdim edilmesi, yeni d\u00f6nemde ise bu a\u015f\u0131r\u0131l\u0131klara tepki olarak feminizm ve kad\u0131n haklar\u0131 tezinin \u00f6n plana \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131, H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n kad\u0131n konusundaki tarih\u00ee tecr\u00fcbesinin bir \u00f6zeti mahiyetindedir.<\/p>\n B\u0130BL\u0130YOGRAFYA 2\/2 \u0130sl\u00e2m dini ve k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn kad\u0131n\u0131n ferd\u00ee ve i\u00e7tima\u00ee hayat\u0131nda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fiklikleri sa\u011fl\u0131kl\u0131 olarak de\u011ferlendirebilmek i\u00e7in \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00f6ncesi Arap toplumuna bakmak gerekir. Arap toplumu, hem \u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019\u0131n i\u00e7inde do\u011fup yay\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00e7evre olmas\u0131 hem de kad\u0131n konusundaki ilk \u0130sl\u00e2m\u00ee yorum ve uygulamalar\u0131 etkilemesi a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00f6nemlidir. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n erkek merkezli C\u00e2hiliye toplumu i\u00e7inde ikinci derecede bir yere sahip olduklar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek yanl\u0131\u015f olmaz. Bunda b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu itibariyle g\u00f6\u00e7ebe bir hayat s\u00fcrmenin de rol\u00fc vard\u0131r. \u00c7\u00f6l \u015fartlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde s\u0131k s\u0131k yer de\u011fi\u015ftirmek zorunda kalan, zaman zaman di\u011fer kabilelere bask\u0131n yapma ve ganimet elde etme mecburiyetinde bulunan g\u00f6\u00e7ebe kabilelerin ya\u015fant\u0131s\u0131nda muharip s\u0131n\u0131ftan olmayan ve daha ziyade t\u00fcketici olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclen kad\u0131n\u0131n ikinci derecede bir role sahip olmas\u0131 \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 de\u011fildir. Bu konum bazan kad\u0131nlar\u0131n hayat\u0131n\u0131 bile \u00f6nemsiz hale getirmi\u015ftir. K\u0131z \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n\u0131n ailenin ve kabilenin imk\u00e2nlar\u0131n\u0131 t\u00fcketmesinin \u00f6n\u00fcne ge\u00e7mek ya da kabileler aras\u0131ndaki bask\u0131nlarda yabanc\u0131lar\u0131n eline ge\u00e7mesinin verece\u011fi utan\u00e7tan kurtulmak i\u00e7in n\u00e2diren de olsa kendi ailesi taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmesi de bunun bir kan\u0131t\u0131n\u0131 te\u015fkil eder.<\/p>\n \u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019dan \u00f6nce baz\u0131 kabilelerin bir d\u00f6nem anaerkil bir aile yap\u0131s\u0131na sahip olduklar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steren ipu\u00e7lar\u0131 varsa da Arap toplumunda genel hatlar\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan olduk\u00e7a kat\u0131 bir peder\u015fah\u00eeli\u011fin mevcudiyeti g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Bunun sonucu olarak kad\u0131nlar\u0131n aile i\u00e7indeki konumlar\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde aile reisi olan erke\u011fe ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. Evlenme \u00e7a\u011f\u0131na gelen k\u0131zlar, dul kad\u0131nlar kendi ba\u015flar\u0131na evlenemez, m\u00fcstakbel e\u015fini \u00e7ok defa kendisi se\u00e7emez; bu yetki velinin elinde bulunur. Ayr\u0131ca veli evlilik kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda m\u00fcstakbel kocadan para veya mal (mehir) al\u0131r. Kad\u0131n\u0131n kocas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc halinde \u00fcvey evl\u00e2d\u0131na veya kay\u0131nbiraderine miras konusu bir mal olarak intikal etmesi de bu konumunun bir sonucudur. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n evlenme ehliyetini sadece ataerkil aile yap\u0131s\u0131 de\u011fil kabile i\u00e7i evlenme gelene\u011fi de (endogami) s\u0131n\u0131rlamaktad\u0131r. Ancak bu d\u00f6nemde \u015fehirli kad\u0131n\u0131n sosyal ve ekonomik durumu g\u00f6\u00e7ebe kabilelerindekine nisbetle farkl\u0131d\u0131r. \u015eehirli kad\u0131n toplum i\u00e7inde etkin bir yere sahiptir, mallar\u0131n\u0131 bizzat yahut bir ortak vas\u0131tas\u0131yla i\u015fletebilir. Eb\u00fb S\u00fcfy\u00e2n\u2019\u0131n e\u015fi Hind\u2019in Mekke\u2019de sayg\u0131n ve \u00f6zellikle m\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlarla m\u00fccadelede etkin konumu, Hz. Peygamber\u2019in ilk e\u015fi Hatice\u2019nin Mekke aristokrasisinin varl\u0131kl\u0131 bir \u00fcyesi olarak temay\u00fcz etmesi ve ekonomik aktivitesini s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmesi bunun \u00f6rneklerini te\u015fkil eder.<\/p>\n C\u00e2hiliye devrinde kad\u0131n-erkek ili\u015fkilerinin bi\u00e7imini de toplumun g\u00f6\u00e7ebe veya yerle\u015fik olmas\u0131 belirlemektedir. G\u00f6\u00e7ebe topluluklarda daha serbest bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fme ortam\u0131n\u0131n mevcut oldu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenebilir. Bu d\u00f6nemde kad\u0131nlar iffetli bir aile hayat\u0131na sahipse de farkl\u0131 erkekle ili\u015fkilerini s\u00fcrd\u00fcrenlerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 da bilinmektedir. \u00d6zellikle k\u00f6lelerin ve \u00e2zatl\u0131lar\u0131n b\u00f6yle bir ya\u015fay\u0131\u015f\u0131 benimsedi\u011fi s\u00f6ylenebilir. Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem, m\u00fcsl\u00fcman kad\u0131nlardan \u00e7e\u015fitli konular yan\u0131nda zina etmemek \u00fczere de biat al\u0131rken bir kad\u0131n\u0131n, \u201cH\u00fcr kad\u0131n hi\u00e7 zina eder mi?\u201d diye hayretini ifade etmesi o d\u00f6nemde yerle\u015fik anlay\u0131\u015f ve uygulamay\u0131 g\u00f6stermesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan dikkat \u00e7ekicidir (Taber\u00ee, XXVIII, 51). Yine Arap toplumunda bo\u015fanman\u0131n yayg\u0131n \u015fekilde uyguland\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve say\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131rlamas\u0131 olmayan bir poligaminin mevcut oldu\u011fu bilinmektedir.<\/p>\n Klasik \u0130sl\u00e2m\u00ee D\u00f6nem. Genel Anlay\u0131\u015f. \u0130sl\u00e2m dini, gerek \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00f6ncesi Arap toplumundaki din\u00ee anlay\u0131\u015f gerekse yerle\u015fmi\u015f \u00f6rf ve \u00e2detlere nisbetle kad\u0131n\u0131n sosyal, ekonomik ve hukuk\u00ee konumunda \u00f6nemli de\u011fi\u015fiklikler yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kur\u2019an, insan olmas\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan kad\u0131n\u0131 erkekle e\u015fit bir varl\u0131k olarak kabul eder. Allah insanlar\u0131 daha huzurlu ve mutlu bir hayat s\u00fcrmeleri i\u00e7in \u00e7ift yaratm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (en-Nis\u00e2 4\/1; er-R\u00fbm 30\/21). \u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019da ilk kad\u0131n taraf\u0131ndan i\u015flenen ve erke\u011fin de i\u015flemesine sebep olunan asl\u00ee g\u00fcnah anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 yoktur. Kur\u2019\u00e2n-\u0131 Ker\u00eem, Hz. \u00c2dem\u2019le Havv\u00e2\u2019n\u0131n \u015feytan taraf\u0131ndan m\u00fc\u015ftereken kand\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan bahseder (el-Bakara 2\/35-36; kr\u015f. T\u00e2h\u00e2 20\/120-121). \u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019da H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k\u2019ta oldu\u011fu gibi ilk g\u00fcnah anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na dayanan kad\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 bir s\u00f6ylem yoktur. Erkek olsun kad\u0131n olsun her do\u011fan ki\u015fi g\u00fcnahs\u0131z do\u011far, sonradan i\u015fledi\u011fi fiiller sebebiyle sorumlu olur.<\/p>\n Kur\u2019\u00e2n-\u0131 Ker\u00eem\u2019de gerek yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f gerekse hak ve sorumluluklar y\u00f6n\u00fcnden erkeklerle e\u015fit konumda olan bir kad\u0131n portresi \u00e7izilmektedir. Kad\u0131n Allah\u2019\u0131n kulu olmas\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan erkekle e\u015fit seviyededir; din\u00ee hak ve sorumluluklar\u0131 da ayn\u0131 d\u00fczeydedir (\u00c2l-i \u0130mr\u00e2n 3\/195; et-Tevbe 9\/71). Hz. Peygamber\u2019in kad\u0131nlara y\u00f6nelik s\u00f6zleri ve uygulamalar\u0131 Kur\u2019an\u2019\u0131n \u00e7izdi\u011fi bu \u00e7er\u00e7eveye uygundur. Onun \u015fahs\u0131nda kad\u0131nlar her zaman meseleleriyle ilgilenen, e\u015fleriyle olan anla\u015fmazl\u0131klar\u0131nda ara buluculuk yapan, haklar\u0131n\u0131 koruyan, erkeklere e\u015flerine iyi davranmalar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011f\u00fctleyen ve kendi ya\u015fay\u0131\u015f\u0131yla da buna \u00f6rnek olan bir dost ve h\u00e2mi bulmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/strong><\/p>\n \u0130sl\u00e2m toplumlar\u0131ndaki uygulamalar\u0131n her zaman yukar\u0131da belirtilen esaslara uygun olarak \u015fekillendi\u011fini s\u00f6ylemek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir. Bazan k\u00f6kle\u015fmi\u015f ataerkil aile anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 ve bu anlay\u0131\u015f \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde kad\u0131n haklar\u0131n\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131tlayan telakki, \u00e2yet ve hadislerin yorumlanmas\u0131na dayand\u0131r\u0131lmak istenmi\u015f, bazan da s\u0131hhati \u015f\u00fcpheli hadislere yayg\u0131nl\u0131k kazand\u0131r\u0131larak bu yorumlara uygun bir zemin haz\u0131rlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130nsana u\u011fursuzluk getiren varl\u0131klar aras\u0131nda kad\u0131n\u0131n da say\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u201c\u00dc\u00e7 \u015fey u\u011fursuzluk getirir: Ev, kad\u0131n ve at\u201d hadisi (Buh\u00e2r\u00ee, \u201cCih\u00e2d\u201d, 47; M\u00fcslim, \u201cSel\u00e2m\u201d, 115-120; Eb\u00fb D\u00e2v\u00fbd, \u201c\u1e6c\u0131b\u201d, 24) bunun \u00f6rneklerinden birini te\u015fkil eder. Bu hadis, her \u015feyden \u00f6nce Hz. Peygamber\u2019in \u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019da u\u011fursuzlu\u011fun olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirten beyan\u0131yla \u00e7eli\u015fmektedir (Buh\u00e2r\u00ee, \u201c\u1e6c\u0131b\u201d, 43; M\u00fcslim, \u201cSel\u00e2m\u201d, 110-114). Ayr\u0131ca Eb\u00fb H\u00fcreyre\u2019nin b\u00f6yle bir hadisi nakletti\u011fini duyan Hz. \u00c2i\u015fe\u2019nin itiraz\u0131 da dikkat \u00e7ekicidir. \u00c2i\u015fe: \u201cEb\u00fb H\u00fcreyre hadisi tam olarak zaptedememi\u015f, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc o Res\u00fblullah \u015f\u00f6yle derken i\u00e7eri girmi\u015ftir: \u2018Allah yahudilerin can\u0131n\u0131 als\u0131n! Onlar u\u011fursuzlu\u011fun evde, kad\u0131nda ve atta oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylerler\u2019. Eb\u00fb H\u00fcreyre s\u00f6z\u00fcn sonunu duymu\u015f, fakat ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 duymam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u201d (Tay\u00e2lis\u00ee, III, 124). \u00d6te yandan hadisin bir yanl\u0131\u015f anlamadan kaynaklanm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 da m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr. Hz. Peygamber ev, at ve kad\u0131n\u0131 u\u011fursuz varl\u0131klar olarak de\u011fil insano\u011flunun saadetinin veya bedbahtl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n sebebi olarak g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir (M\u00fcsned, I, 168). Ancak kad\u0131n\u0131 u\u011fursuz sayan anlay\u0131\u015f, \u0130sl\u00e2m tarihinde zaman zaman baz\u0131 toplumsal fel\u00e2ketlerin sorumlulu\u011funun kad\u0131na y\u00fcklenmesine ve ona y\u00f6nelik bask\u0131c\u0131 bir tav\u0131r tak\u0131n\u0131lmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Nitekim F\u00e2t\u0131m\u00ee Halifesi H\u00e2kim-Biemrill\u00e2h 391 (1001) y\u0131l\u0131ndaki kurakl\u0131k ve salg\u0131n hastal\u0131klar\u0131 kad\u0131nlar\u0131n serbest\u00e7e evlerinden d\u0131\u015far\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kmalar\u0131na ba\u011flam\u0131\u015f ve bunu yasaklam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Benzer bir yasak, yine k\u0131tl\u0131k ve salg\u0131n hastal\u0131klar y\u00fcz\u00fcnden Meml\u00fck Sultan\u0131 Barsbay taraf\u0131ndan da uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (Huda Lutfi, s. 101). Bir ba\u015fka \u00f6rnek namaz k\u0131lan\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcnden merkep, kara k\u00f6pek ve kad\u0131n\u0131n ge\u00e7mesi durumunda namaz\u0131n bozulaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ifade eden hadistir (M\u00fcslim, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 50; Eb\u00fb D\u00e2v\u00fbd, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 109; Tirmiz\u00ee, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 136; Nes\u00e2\u00ee, \u201c\u1e32\u0131ble\u201d, 7). Hz. \u00c2i\u015fe bu hadise \u015fiddetle itiraz etmi\u015f ve, \u201cBazan Res\u00fblullah namaz k\u0131larken ben onunla k\u0131blesi aras\u0131nda yatm\u0131\u015f olurdum, secde etmek istedi\u011finde ayaklar\u0131ma dokunurdu, ben de onlar\u0131 \u00e7ekerdim\u201d demi\u015ftir (Buh\u00e2r\u00ee, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 108; M\u00fcslim, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 51; Eb\u00fb D\u00e2v\u00fbd, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 111; Nes\u00e2\u00ee, \u201c\u1e32\u0131ble\u201d, 10). Ancak bu anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n her d\u00f6nemde \u0130sl\u00e2m toplumlar\u0131na h\u00e2kim olmu\u015f de\u011fildir. Mesel\u00e2 kad\u0131nlar h\u0131ristiyan d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda oldu\u011fu gibi hi\u00e7bir zaman toplumsal bir nefretin odak noktas\u0131na yerle\u015ftirilmemi\u015ftir. Bununla birlikte Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem\u2019den sonra ataerkilli\u011fin ve yerle\u015fmi\u015f anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n tesiriyle kad\u0131nlar\u0131n konumunda gerilemenin oldu\u011fu da bir v\u00e2k\u0131ad\u0131r. \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00e2limleri yapt\u0131klar\u0131 yorumlarda i\u00e7inde ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 sosyal, k\u00fclt\u00fcrel \u00e7evreden ve siyas\u00ee \u015fartlardan etkilenmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n S\u00f6z\u00fc edilen geri gidi\u015fin baz\u0131 \u00f6rneklerine din\u00ee ve i\u00e7tima\u00ee alanlarda rastlamak m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr. Hz. Peygamber d\u00f6neminde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n Mescid-i Nebev\u00ee\u2019de aktif bir din\u00ee hayat\u0131ndan bahsedilebilir. Sah\u00e2b\u00ee kad\u0131nlar\u0131n gerek g\u00fcnl\u00fck namazlara gerekse cuma ve bayram namazlar\u0131na kat\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131 bilinmektedir. Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem\u2019in bu i\u015ftiraki te\u015fvik etti\u011fi, hatta mazeretleri sebebiyle namaz k\u0131lamayacak durumda olanlar\u0131n bile bayram namazlar\u0131nda cemaatin gerisinde durup tekbirlere kat\u0131lmalar\u0131n\u0131 istedi\u011fi kaydedilmektedir (Buh\u00e2r\u00ee, \u201c\u02bf\u00cedeyn\u201d, 15; M\u00fcslim, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u00fc\u2019l-\u02bf\u00eedeyn\u201d, 1). Res\u00fblullah\u2019\u0131n zaman zaman erkekler b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc ge\u00e7ip kad\u0131nlar\u0131n yan\u0131na gitti\u011fi ve onlara ayr\u0131ca din\u00ee bilgiler verdi\u011fi de olmu\u015ftur. Bu ise kad\u0131nlar\u0131n cemaate i\u015ftirakinin az say\u0131da olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan dikkat \u00e7ekicidir.<\/p>\n Hz. Peygamber\u2019in vefat\u0131ndan hemen sonra kad\u0131nlar\u0131n namazlar\u0131n\u0131 camide k\u0131lma uygulamas\u0131ndan rahats\u0131zl\u0131k duyulmaya ba\u015fland\u0131\u011f\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Bunda, baz\u0131 kad\u0131nlar\u0131n dikkat \u00e7ekecek \u015fekilde s\u00fcslenerek mescide devam etmelerinin rol\u00fc olmal\u0131d\u0131r. Zira Hz. \u00c2i\u015fe\u2019den gelen bir rivayet bunu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcrmektedir: \u201cE\u011fer Peygamber kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kendisinden sonra neler yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f olsayd\u0131 Ben\u00ee \u0130sr\u00e2il kad\u0131nlar\u0131nda oldu\u011fu gibi onlar\u0131 mescide gelmekten menederdi\u201d (Eb\u00fb D\u00e2v\u00fbd, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 53). Burada \u00c2i\u015fe\u2019nin dikkat \u00e7ekmek istedi\u011fi husus, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n cemaate kat\u0131lmalar\u0131 de\u011fil camiyi s\u00fcs ve ziynetlerini g\u00f6sterme yeri olarak kullanmalar\u0131d\u0131r. Yine Hz. \u00c2i\u015fe\u2019nin rivayet etti\u011fi bir hadiste Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem, \u201cEy insanlar! Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131z\u0131 ziynetlerini takarak mescidde g\u00f6steri\u015f yapmaktan menedin\u201d demi\u015ftir (\u0130bn M\u00e2ce, \u201cFiten\u201d, 19). Hz. \u00d6mer\u2019in, hil\u00e2feti d\u00f6neminde ramazan aylar\u0131nda mescidde kad\u0131nlar i\u00e7in bir yer ay\u0131rmas\u0131 ve S\u00fcleyman b. Eb\u00fb Hasme\u2019yi sadece kad\u0131nlara namaz k\u0131ld\u0131rmak i\u00e7in g\u00f6revlendirmesi (\u0130bn Sa\u2018d, V, 16; Abbott, s. 114), b\u00f6yle bir sosyal de\u011fi\u015fim kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda Mescid-i Nebev\u00ee\u2019yi ibadet mahalli olarak muhafaza etme hedefine y\u00f6nelik olmal\u0131d\u0131r. Ancak bu uygulama Hz. Osman zaman\u0131nda kald\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, kad\u0131nlar \u00f6nceden oldu\u011fu gibi tek imam\u0131n arkas\u0131nda erkeklerle birlikte namaz k\u0131lmaya devam etmi\u015ftir (\u0130bn Sa\u2018d, V, 17; Abbott, s. 115). Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n camilerden uzak tutulmak istenmesi zamanla etkisini g\u00f6stermi\u015f, onlar\u0131n evdeki ibadetlerinin camidekinden daha faziletli oldu\u011fu, camiye gitmelerinin fitneye sebep olaca\u011f\u0131 inanc\u0131 yerle\u015fmeye ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kad\u0131nlar bunun yerine sonraki d\u00f6nemlerde t\u00fcrbe, tekke ve z\u00e2viyeleri ziyarete y\u00f6nelmi\u015flerdir. Bu ise dinin teorik ve amel\u00ee y\u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc de\u011fil \u015fekl\u00ee y\u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc \u00f6n plana \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu geli\u015fme, din d\u0131\u015f\u0131 baz\u0131 uygulamalar\u0131n zamanla dindenmi\u015f gibi g\u00f6sterilmesinde etkili olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n Hukuk\u00ee Stat\u00fcs\u00fc. Kad\u0131n\u0131n \u0130sl\u00e2m tarihi i\u00e7indeki konumunun belirlenmesinde hukuk\u00ee h\u00fck\u00fcmlerin \u00f6nemli bir pay\u0131n\u0131n oldu\u011fu \u015f\u00fcphesizdir. Konuyla ilgili \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f ara\u015ft\u0131rmalarda da bu h\u00fck\u00fcmler geni\u015f bir \u015fekilde incelenmi\u015ftir. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla burada, f\u0131k\u0131h kitaplar\u0131n\u0131n ve uygulaman\u0131n \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131nda \u00f6zellikle tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lan ve kad\u0131n\u0131n konumunu belirlemede esas olan hak (v\u00fcc\u00fbb) ve fiil (ed\u00e2) ehliyeti, bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede evlenme \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, bo\u015fanma imk\u00e2n\u0131, aile reisli\u011fi, miras payla\u015f\u0131m\u0131, yarg\u0131lama hukukundaki durumu, \u015fahitli\u011fi, kamu alan\u0131ndaki yeri ve devlet ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 konular\u0131ndaki hukuk\u00ee h\u00fck\u00fcmler ele al\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Uygulamaya y\u00f6nelik incelemelerin \u00f6nemli bir problemi bu alanda en zengin bilgi kayna\u011f\u0131n\u0131 Osmanl\u0131 mahkeme kay\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131n te\u015fkil etmesidir. \u00d6nceki d\u00f6nemlere ve di\u011fer \u00fclkelere ait kay\u0131tlar\u0131n \u00e7ok n\u00e2dir olu\u015fu, Osmanl\u0131 uygulamas\u0131n\u0131n genelle\u015ftirilmesi sak\u0131ncas\u0131n\u0131 beraberinde getirmekteyse de bu kay\u0131tlar\u0131n \u00e7ok geni\u015f bir co\u011frafyaya yay\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 (mesel\u00e2 \u0130stanbul, Bursa, Karaman, Kayseri, Sivas, Trabzon), benzer sosyal ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel yap\u0131ya sahip \u015fehirlerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra Halep, \u015eam, Kud\u00fcs, Nablus, Kahire gibi farkl\u0131 yap\u0131lardaki \u015fehirlere ait kay\u0131tlar\u0131n da elde bulunu\u015fu genelle\u015ftirmenin sak\u0131ncalar\u0131n\u0131 asgariye indirmektedir.<\/p>\n Kad\u0131n \u0130sl\u00e2m hukukunda bir hak s\u00fcjesi de\u011fil hakk\u0131n taraf\u0131d\u0131r. \u201cErkeklerin de kazand\u0131klar\u0131ndan nasipleri, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n da kazand\u0131klar\u0131ndan nasipleri var\u201d me\u00e2lindeki \u00e2yet (en-Nis\u00e2 4\/32), her iki cinsin sadece m\u00e2nev\u00ee kazan\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fil madd\u00ee kazan\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131 da vurgulamaktad\u0131r. Hukuk\u00ee i\u015flemleri yapma hususunda kad\u0131n esas itibariyle erkeklerle ayn\u0131 konumdad\u0131r; erkekler bir hukuk\u00ee i\u015flemi hangi \u015fartlarla yapabiliyorsa kad\u0131nlar da o \u015fartlarda yapabilirler. Her ne kadar \u0130mam M\u00e2lik, evli kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kocalar\u0131ndan izinsiz olarak ancak mallar\u0131n\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7te biri oran\u0131nda ba\u015fkalar\u0131 lehine kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131ks\u0131z kazand\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 i\u015flemleri yapabilece\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcndeyse de bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f az\u0131nl\u0131kta kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Hukuk\u00e7ular\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011funa g\u00f6re tam ehliyetli (\u00e2k\u0131l -b\u00e2li\u011f- re\u015f\u00eed) olmak \u015fart\u0131yla kad\u0131nlar kendi aleyhlerine olan ba\u011f\u0131\u015f ve vak\u0131f gibi i\u015flemleri de serbest\u00e7e yapabilirler. Nitekim Hz. Peygamber d\u00f6neminden itibaren sadaka tarz\u0131ndaki din\u00ee ba\u011f\u0131\u015flarda kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u00f6zel bir yeri olmu\u015ftur. Eb\u00fb Sa\u00eed el-Hudr\u00ee, Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem\u2019in insanlar\u0131 sadaka vermeye te\u015fvik eden hadisini rivayet ettikten sonra, \u201cEn \u00e7ok sadaka verenler kad\u0131nlar olurdu\u201d demektedir (M\u00fcslim, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u00fc\u2019l-\u02bf\u00eedeyn\u201d, 9).<\/p>\n Her t\u00fcrl\u00fc hukuk\u00ee i\u015flemi yapma ehliyeti bak\u0131m\u0131ndan kad\u0131nlar\u0131n sahip oldu\u011fu teorik imk\u00e2n\u0131n uygulamaya yans\u0131mad\u0131\u011f\u0131 kendilerine ait mallar \u00fczerindeki tasarruf hak ve yetkisinin \u00e7ok defa onlar\u0131n r\u0131z\u00e2lar\u0131 s\u00f6z konusu olmaks\u0131z\u0131n babalar\u0131 veya kocalar\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 kanaati yayg\u0131nl\u0131k kazanm\u0131\u015fsa da bu do\u011fru de\u011fildir. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n ekonomik ve ticar\u00ee alanda erkekler kadar aktif olmamalar\u0131, sahip olduklar\u0131 mallarla ilgili tasarruf yetkisinden mahrum olduklar\u0131 veya bunu babalar\u0131na yahut kocalar\u0131na kapt\u0131rd\u0131klar\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelmez. \u015eer\u2018iyye sicilleri \u00fczerinde yap\u0131lan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kendi mallar\u0131na bizzat tasarruf ettiklerini g\u00f6stermektedir. XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk \u00e7eyre\u011finde Kayseri\u2019de mahkemeye kayd\u0131 yap\u0131lan mal ve eml\u00e2k sat\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n % 40\u2019\u0131n\u0131n taraflar\u0131ndan en az biri kad\u0131nd\u0131r. \u0130\u015flemlerin \u00fc\u00e7te ikisinde kad\u0131nlar sat\u0131c\u0131, \u00fc\u00e7te birinde al\u0131c\u0131 durumundad\u0131r. Bu oran ayn\u0131 d\u00f6nemde Amasya b\u00f6lgesinde daha y\u00fcksek, Trabzon ve Karaman\u2019da biraz daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fckt\u00fcr (Jennings, XVIII\/1 [1975], s. 99-100). Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n, kendi mallar\u0131 \u00fczerinde r\u0131z\u00e2lar\u0131 al\u0131nmadan yap\u0131lan hukuk\u00ee i\u015flemleri iptal etme hakk\u0131na sahip olduklar\u0131 ve gerekti\u011finde bu hakk\u0131 kullanmaktan geri durmad\u0131klar\u0131 da yine bu kay\u0131tlardan anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r (a.g.e., s. 63-67). Kad\u0131n\u0131n evli veya bek\u00e2r, mallar\u0131na tasarruf edenin de babas\u0131 veya kocas\u0131 olmas\u0131 sonucu etkilemez. \u0130sl\u00e2m hukukunda mevcut mal ayr\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ilkesi kocay\u0131 kar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n mallar\u0131 \u00fczerinde yetkisiz k\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Bu durum uygulamaya \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde yans\u0131m\u0131\u015f ve Bat\u0131 hukukunda evli kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kendi mallar\u0131 \u00fczerinde tasarruf ehliyetine sahip bulunmamas\u0131 gibi bir durum m\u00fcsl\u00fcman kad\u0131nlar i\u00e7in s\u00f6z konusu olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (a.g.e., s. 101-102).<\/p>\n Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n hukuk\u00ee ehliyet ve mal\u00ee imk\u00e2nlar\u0131n\u0131 hayata ne \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ge\u00e7irebildiklerini g\u00f6stermesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan mal varl\u0131klar\u0131nda eksilmeye yol a\u00e7an ve bu sebeple i\u015flem sahibinin tam ehliyetli olmas\u0131n\u0131 gerektiren vak\u0131flar \u00f6zel bir yere sahiptir. \u0130sl\u00e2m tarihinin muhtelif d\u00f6nemlerinde ve \u0130sl\u00e2m co\u011frafyas\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli yerlerinde kad\u0131nlar taraf\u0131ndan kurulan vak\u0131flar her zaman belli bir oran\u0131n \u00fczerinde olmu\u015ftur. 953 (1546) tarihli \u0130stanbul Vak\u0131flar\u0131 Tahr\u00eer Defteri\u2019nde kay\u0131tl\u0131 (s. V) 2517 vak\u0131ftan 913\u2019\u00fc (% 36) kad\u0131nlar taraf\u0131ndan kurulmu\u015ftur. XVIII. y\u00fczy\u0131lda M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da kurulmu\u015f olan, vakfiyeleri M\u0131s\u0131r Evkaf Bakanl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019nda muhafaza edilen 496 vak\u0131ftan 126\u2019s\u0131n\u0131 (% 25) kad\u0131nlar tesis etmi\u015ftir (Fay, s. 35). Halep\u2019te kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kurdu\u011fu vak\u0131flar XVI. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren gittik\u00e7e y\u00fckselen bir seyir takip eder. Halep \u015fer\u2018iyye sicillerine kaydedilen vakfiyeler i\u00e7inde kad\u0131nlar taraf\u0131ndan tesis edilenler XVI. y\u00fczy\u0131lda % 6,5, XVII. y\u00fczy\u0131lda % 26, XVIII. y\u00fczy\u0131lda % 37, XIX. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda % 44\u2019l\u00fck bir orana sahiptir (Meriwether, s. 132). Bu oranlar\u0131n kad\u0131nlar\u0131n ticar\u00ee hayattaki s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 etkinlikleri dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda hayli y\u00fcksek oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr ve kad\u0131nlar\u0131n sahip olduklar\u0131 hak ve imk\u00e2nlar\u0131 rahat bir \u015fekilde kullanabildiklerini g\u00f6sterir.<\/p>\n Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kurdu\u011fu vak\u0131flar i\u00e7inde hayr\u00ee vak\u0131flar\u0131n yan\u0131nda z\u00fcrr\u00ee (aile) vak\u0131flar da vard\u0131r. Dikkat \u00e7eken bir nokta, bu vak\u0131flara tahsis edilen imk\u00e2nlarla yap\u0131lan meskenler aras\u0131nda dul kalm\u0131\u015f, bo\u015fanm\u0131\u015f kad\u0131nlar\u0131n bar\u0131nabilmesi i\u00e7in ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olanlar\u0131n da bulunmas\u0131d\u0131r. Makr\u00eez\u00ee, Kahire\u2019de Kar\u00e2fet\u00fclkeb\u00eere\u2019de Hz. Peygamber\u2019in e\u015flerinin mescide biti\u015fik odalar\u0131 \u015feklinde in\u015fa edilmi\u015f, ihtiyar dul kad\u0131nlara ait bir vak\u0131ftan (rib\u00e2t) bahsetmektedir (el-\u1e2a\u0131\u1e6da\u1e6d, II, 454). Seh\u00e2v\u00ee de yine Kahire\u2019de H\u00e2ret\u00fc Abd\u00fclb\u00e2s\u0131t\u2019ta bu maksatla in\u015fa edilmi\u015f rib\u00e2tlar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bildirir (Leila Ahmed, s. 110). Kad\u0131nlar kurduklar\u0131 vak\u0131flar\u0131 \u00e7ok defa kendileri y\u00f6netmi\u015flerdir.<\/p>\n Her t\u00fcrl\u00fc hukuk\u00ee i\u015flemi yapabilme ehliyeti bak\u0131m\u0131ndan erkekle ayn\u0131 konumda olan kad\u0131n\u0131n Hanef\u00ee ve Ca\u2018fer\u00eeler\u2019in d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki mezheplerce evlenme ehliyetine getirilen s\u0131n\u0131rlama (ancak velisinin r\u0131z\u00e2s\u0131 ile evlenebilmesi), bir yandan Arap toplumundaki ataerkil gelene\u011fin f\u0131kh\u00ee yorumlara yans\u0131mas\u0131n\u0131n, \u00f6te yandan d\u00f6nemin \u015fartlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde kad\u0131nlar\u0131 koruma arzusunun do\u011furdu\u011fu bir sonu\u00e7 olarak de\u011ferlendirilmelidir. Hanef\u00eeler, Hz. Peygamber\u2019in ergen k\u0131zlar\u0131n velileri taraf\u0131ndan evlenmeye zorlanamayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ifade eden s\u00f6zleri ve uygulamalar\u0131n\u0131, di\u011fer mezhepler ise velinin \u00f6nemini vurgulayan hadisleri esas alm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r (bu delillerin geni\u015f bir de\u011ferlendirmesi i\u00e7in bk. Abd\u00fclker\u00eem Zeyd\u00e2n, VI, 430-463). Hanef\u00eeler\u2019in yayg\u0131n oldu\u011fu b\u00f6lgelerde kad\u0131na evlenme ehliyeti tan\u0131yan g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f, di\u011fer mezheplerin yayg\u0131n bulundu\u011fu ve daha \u00e7ok Araplar\u2019\u0131n mesk\u00fbn oldu\u011fu b\u00f6lgelerde ise ikinci g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f h\u00e2kim olmu\u015ftur. Ancak Osmanl\u0131lar\u2019da XVI. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren, Muhammed b. Hasan e\u015f-\u015eeyb\u00e2n\u00ee\u2019ye ait olan, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n velileriyle m\u00fc\u015ftereken evlenme ehliyetine sahip olduklar\u0131 yani ikisinin de r\u0131z\u00e2s\u0131n\u0131n gerekli oldu\u011fu yolundaki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f uygulamaya konulmu\u015f, 1917 Osmanl\u0131 Huk\u016bk-\u0131 \u00c2ile Kararn\u00e2mesi\u2019nde tekrar \u00e2k\u0131l b\u00e2li\u011f kad\u0131na evlenme ehliyeti tan\u0131yan g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fe d\u00f6n\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. XX. y\u00fczy\u0131lda bir\u00e7ok Arap \u00fclkesindeki aile kanunlar\u0131nda da Hanef\u00eeler\u2019deki h\u00e2kim g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc esas alan bir d\u00fczenlemeye gidilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n \u0130sl\u00e2m hukukunda aile reisli\u011fi denebilecek \u201ckavv\u00e2m olma\u201d yetki ve sorumlulu\u011fu kocaya verilmi\u015ftir. Kur\u2019\u00e2n-\u0131 Ker\u00eem\u2019de, \u201cAllah\u2019\u0131n insanlar\u0131n baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 di\u011ferlerine nisbetle farkl\u0131 yeteneklere sahip olarak yaratmas\u0131 ve ailenin ge\u00e7imi i\u00e7in \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131p harcama yapmalar\u0131 sebebiyle erkekler kad\u0131nlar \u00fczerinde kavv\u00e2md\u0131r\u201d denilmektedir (en-Nis\u00e2 4\/34). Burada \u201ckavv\u00e2m\u201d kelimesi koruma ve y\u00f6netme hak ve yetkilerine m\u00fc\u015ftereken sahip olmay\u0131 ifade etmektedir. Aile reisli\u011finin kocaya verilmesi, toplumun bu en k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck biriminde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kacak karma\u015fay\u0131 \u00f6nleme ve huzuru sa\u011flama hedefine y\u00f6neliktir. Dolay\u0131s\u0131yla burada ontolojik bir \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fckten ziyade fonksiyonel bir yetki farkl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemek gerekir (Fazlurrahman, s. 93). Bu genel kural, yetenek ve harcama y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn yer de\u011fi\u015ftirdi\u011fi m\u00fcnferit \u00f6rneklerde farkl\u0131 bir durumun ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na engel te\u015fkil etmez. Nitekim baz\u0131 \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00e2limleri, harcama y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn yer de\u011fi\u015ftirebildi\u011fi zaman\u0131m\u0131zda bu kural\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fmez olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 hususu \u00fczerinde durmaktad\u0131r (Amina Wadud Muhsin, s. 71 vd.; Fazlurrahman, s. 93-94).<\/p>\n \u0130sl\u00e2miyet esas itibariyle tek evlili\u011fi \u00f6nermi\u015f, ancak gerekti\u011finde adaletli davranmak \u015fart\u0131yla \u00e7ok evlili\u011fe de izin vermi\u015ftir (en-Nis\u00e2 4\/3). Fazlurrahman, adaletli davranma \u015fart\u0131n\u0131n klasik hukuk\u00e7ular taraf\u0131ndan sadece ahl\u00e2k\u00ee bor\u00e7 olarak anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131p hukuk\u00ee m\u00fceyyideye ba\u011flanmamas\u0131n\u0131 ele\u015ftirmektedir (Ana Konular\u0131yla Kur\u2019an, s. 91). Bu teorik imk\u00e2na ra\u011fmen \u0130sl\u00e2m toplumlar\u0131nda \u00e7ok evlili\u011fin yayg\u0131n olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek gerekir. Osmanl\u0131 tereke defterleri \u00fczerinde yap\u0131lan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, \u015fehir veya k\u0131rsal kesimde ya\u015fama durumuna ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak \u00e7ok evlilik oran\u0131n\u0131n % 5-9 civar\u0131nda oldu\u011funu ortaya koymaktad\u0131r. Edirne asker\u00ee kassam\u0131na ait tereke defterlerine g\u00f6re 1545-1659 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ikinci evlilik oran\u0131 % 7,18\u2019dir (Barkan, III\/5-6 [1968], s. 14). Bursa\u2019da bu oran \u00e7ok daha d\u00fc\u015f\u00fckt\u00fcr (% 3,48; \u00d6zde\u011fer, s. 50). Baz\u0131 ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, Osmanl\u0131 \u015fehirlerinde birden fazla e\u015fle evlilik oran\u0131n\u0131n % 9,27, k\u00f6ylerde ise % 3 oldu\u011funu g\u00f6stermektedir (Demirel v.d\u011fr., I, 102-103). \u00c7ok evlilik oran\u0131 son d\u00f6neme ait n\u00fcfus kay\u0131tlar\u0131ndan daha a\u00e7\u0131k bir \u015fekilde tesbit edilebilmektedir. \u0130stanbul\u2019da 1885 y\u0131l\u0131nda \u00e7ok evlilik oran\u0131 % 2,52, 1907\u2019de % 2,16\u2019d\u0131r (Duben-Behar, s. 161-162). E\u015flerinin kendileri \u00fczerine evlenmesini istemeyen kad\u0131nlar Hanbel\u00ee mezhebine g\u00f6re bunu nik\u00e2h esnas\u0131nda \u015fart olarak ileri s\u00fcrebilmekte ve bu \u015fart ba\u011flay\u0131c\u0131 olmaktad\u0131r. Uygulamada bunun az\u0131msanmayacak \u00f6rneklerine rastlamak m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr (Abdal-Rah\u00eem, s. 98, 107). Huk\u016bk-\u0131 \u00c2ile Kararn\u00e2mesi de bu \u015fart\u0131n ge\u00e7erli ve ba\u011flay\u0131c\u0131 oldu\u011funu kabul etmi\u015ftir (md. 38).<\/p>\n Hanef\u00eeler evlenme ehliyeti konusunda geni\u015fletici bir yorumu benimserken bo\u015fanma ehliyeti hususunda tam aksi bir yol izlemi\u015flerdir. Koca bu mezhepte tek tarafl\u0131 irade beyan\u0131yla (tal\u00e2k) veya e\u015fiyle anla\u015farak (muh\u00e2lea) bo\u015fanma imk\u00e2n\u0131na sahipken kad\u0131n sadece kocan\u0131n iktidars\u0131z olmas\u0131 durumunda h\u00e2kim karar\u0131yla bo\u015fanabilmektedir. Di\u011fer mezheplerce kabul edilen, kocan\u0131n e\u015fini nafakas\u0131z terketmesi, gaip olmas\u0131, e\u015fine k\u00f6t\u00fc muamelede bulunmas\u0131 gibi hususlar Hanef\u00eeler\u2019ce bo\u015fanma sebebi olarak kabul edilmemi\u015ftir (bk. TAL\u00c2K). Hanef\u00eeler\u2019in bu daralt\u0131c\u0131 yorumu, mezhebin yayg\u0131n oldu\u011fu b\u00f6lgelerde zaman zaman ciddi problemlere sebep olmu\u015ftur. Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nde kocas\u0131ndan bo\u015fanmak isteyen ve bunu ba\u015fka bir yolla sa\u011flayamayan kad\u0131nlar, D\u00eev\u00e2n-\u0131 H\u00fcm\u00e2yun\u2019a ba\u015fvurup resm\u00ee bask\u0131 ile kocalar\u0131n\u0131n kendilerini bo\u015famalar\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f ve bunda belirli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olmu\u015flard\u0131r. Bu problem, Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nde ancak Huk\u016bk-\u0131 \u00c2ile Kararn\u00e2mesi\u2019nin di\u011fer mezheplerden yararlanarak bo\u015fanma sebeplerini geni\u015fletmesiyle \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. \u00d6te yandan kocan\u0131n sahip oldu\u011fu kolay bo\u015fama imk\u00e2n\u0131 ayn\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde uygulamaya yans\u0131mam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00d6zellikle T\u00fcrkler\u2019in mesk\u00fbn oldu\u011fu b\u00f6lgelerde bo\u015fama oran\u0131 tarih boyunca hep d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Arap toplumlar\u0131nda ise bu oran biraz daha y\u00fcksektir. Baz\u0131 b\u00f6lgelerde keyf\u00ee bo\u015famalar\u0131 \u00f6nlemek i\u00e7in mehr-i m\u00fceccel miktar\u0131 hayli y\u00fcksek tutulmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n Aile birli\u011fi devam ederken kar\u0131 kocan\u0131n \u00e7ocuklar\u0131yla m\u00fc\u015ftereken ilgilendikleri, bak\u0131m, terbiye ve g\u00f6zetim y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc beraberce \u00fcstlendikleri g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Bu birli\u011fin bozuldu\u011fu veya \u00f6l\u00fcmle sona erdi\u011fi durumlarda ise Bat\u0131 hukukunda \u201cvel\u00e2yet\u201d ad\u0131 alt\u0131nda tek bir kurum olarak \u015fekillenen \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n \u015fah\u0131s ve mal varl\u0131klar\u0131yla ilgilenme hak ve yetkisi \u0130sl\u00e2m hukukunda iki kuruma b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. \u00c7ocu\u011fun belli bir ya\u015fa kadar bak\u0131m\u0131 demek olan \u201chid\u00e2ne\u201dde yetki anneye ve onun bulunmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 durumlarda kendi cinsinden akrabalar\u0131na (teyze), belli bir ya\u015ftan sonra \u015fah\u0131s ve mal varl\u0131klar\u0131yla ilgili olanlar vel\u00e2yet ad\u0131yla babaya ve onun erkek akrabalar\u0131na (amca) verilmi\u015ftir. Bu ay\u0131r\u0131m \u00e7ocu\u011fun pedagojik ve psikolojik ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131 g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131narak yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak kural bu olmakla beraber \u00f6zellikle baban\u0131n olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 hallerde mahkemenin anneyi di\u011fer akrabalara tercih ederek vas\u00ee tayin etti\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n Ailede kar\u0131 koca aras\u0131nda bir anla\u015fmazl\u0131k \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 durumunda bunun nas\u0131l halledilece\u011fi meselesi \u00f6nemli bir problem te\u015fkil etmektedir. Burada kad\u0131n\u0131n aile i\u00e7indeki konumunu yak\u0131ndan ilgilendiren nokta, b\u00f6yle durumlarda kocan\u0131n kar\u0131s\u0131 \u00fczerinde ne gibi bir yetkisinin bulundu\u011fu hususudur. Koca aile reisi oldu\u011funa g\u00f6re bu yetkinin a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n bir taraftan aile birli\u011fini, di\u011fer taraftan kad\u0131n\u0131n ki\u015fili\u011fini etkileyece\u011fi a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. Kur\u2019\u00e2n-\u0131 Ker\u00eem\u2019de, kocas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 itaatsiz (n\u00e2\u015fize) durumuna d\u00fc\u015fen kad\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nce nasihatle yola getirilece\u011fi, ard\u0131ndan yataklar\u0131n ayr\u0131laca\u011f\u0131, bunun da etkili olmamas\u0131 halinde d\u00f6v\u00fclebilece\u011finin (darb) belirtilmesi (en-Nis\u00e2 4\/34), \u00fczerinde en fazla tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lan konular\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda gelmektedir. \u00c2yette ge\u00e7en \u201cdarb\u201d kelimesinin yayg\u0131n anlam\u0131 olan \u201cd\u00f6vme\u201dden ba\u015fka bir anlam ta\u015f\u0131y\u0131p ta\u015f\u0131mad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde \u00e7ok tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Burada, il\u00e2h\u00ee mesaja do\u011fru m\u00e2na verilmesi a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00e2yette sadece darb kelimesinin de\u011fil \u201cn\u00e2\u015fize\u201dnin de ne anlamda ve hangi kapsamda kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n belirlenmesi gerekmektedir.<\/p>\n Genel olarak \u201citaatsizlik\u201d m\u00e2nas\u0131na gelen \u201cn\u00fc\u015f\u00fbz\u201d kelimesi, ailenin huzurunu bozan basit bir davran\u0131\u015ftan iffetsiz ya\u015famaya kadar geni\u015f bir alan\u0131 i\u00e7ine almaktad\u0131r. Huzuru bozan her davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131na denk bir m\u00fceyyideyle kar\u015f\u0131lanmas\u0131, hem ailenin birli\u011fini koruma noktas\u0131ndan hem de fiil ve m\u00fceyyide aras\u0131nda g\u00f6zetilmesi gereken denge a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan \u00f6nemlidir. Kur\u2019an\u2019\u0131 yorumlamada birinci kaynak olan Hz. Peygamber\u2019in uygulamalar\u0131 bu konuya da \u0131\u015f\u0131k tutacak niteliktedir. Hadis kitaplar\u0131 ve Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem\u2019in hayat\u0131ndan bahseden eserler onun e\u015flerini d\u00f6vd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne dair herhangi bir olaydan s\u00f6z etmemektedir. Hz. \u00c2i\u015fe, Res\u00fblullah\u2019\u0131n e\u015flerini ve hizmet\u00e7ilerini asla d\u00f6vmedi\u011fini s\u00f6ylemektedir (\u0130bn M\u00e2ce, \u201cNik\u00e2\u1e25\u201d, 51). Ayr\u0131ca Hz. Peygamber, kendisine kar\u015f\u0131 olumsuz davran\u0131\u015f\u0131ndan \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc \u00c2i\u015fe\u2019nin babas\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan cezaland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na da r\u0131za g\u00f6stermemi\u015ftir. \u015eu halde basit uyu\u015fmazl\u0131k durumunda \u015fiddete ba\u015fvurulmas\u0131 \u00f6nerilen bir y\u00f6ntem de\u011fildir. Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem Ved\u00e2 hutbesinde kad\u0131nlara iyi davran\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011f\u00fctlemekte, bunun yan\u0131nda \u201cyataklar\u0131n\u0131 herhangi bir kimseye \u00e7i\u011fnetmemeleri\u201dnin (zina etmemelerinin) kocalar\u0131n e\u015fleri \u00fczerindeki hakk\u0131 oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemekte, aksi takdirde hafif\u00e7e d\u00f6v\u00fclebileceklerinden bahsetmektedir (M\u00fcslim, \u201c\u1e24ac\u201d, 147; Eb\u00fb D\u00e2v\u00fbd, \u201cMen\u00e2sik\u201d, 56; Tirmiz\u00ee, \u201cTefs\u00eer\u201d, 9). \u00c2yette ge\u00e7en \u201cn\u00fc\u015f\u00fbz\u201dun hangi davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 i\u00e7ermesi halinde d\u00f6vme cezas\u0131n\u0131n uygulanabilece\u011fini g\u00f6stermesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan Ved\u00e2 hutbesindeki bu ifade dikkat \u00e7ekicidir. Asl\u0131nda klasik d\u00f6nemin baz\u0131 \u00e2limleri de d\u00f6vme yetkisine \u00e7ok ihtiyatla yakla\u015fm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Hz. Peygamber\u2019in, m\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n en hay\u0131rl\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n e\u015flerine en iyi davrananlar oldu\u011funu ve kendisinin bu konuda \u00f6rnek te\u015fkil etti\u011fini s\u00f6ylemesini, e\u015flerini ancak k\u00f6t\u00fc kimselerin d\u00f6vece\u011fini ifade ederek onlara b\u00f6yle davran\u0131lmamas\u0131n\u0131 emretmesini (M\u00fcttak\u012b el-Hind\u00ee, XVI, 371, 374, 376-377) g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne alan bu \u00e2limler kad\u0131n\u0131n d\u00f6v\u00fclemeyece\u011fini veya faziletli davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n onlara b\u00f6yle bir cezay\u0131 uygulamamak oldu\u011funu belirtmi\u015flerdir (Abd\u00fclker\u00eem Zeyd\u00e2n, VII, 316-317). Fakat tatbikatta her zaman Res\u00fblullah\u2019\u0131n bildirdi\u011fi bu esaslara g\u00f6re davran\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir. Nitekim kocalar\u0131ndan k\u00f6t\u00fc muamele g\u00f6ren ve d\u00f6v\u00fclen kad\u0131nlar\u0131n mahkemeye intikal etmi\u015f bir hayli \u015fik\u00e2yetleri s\u00f6z konusudur (Ayd\u0131n, Osm.Ar., V [1986], s. 8-9; Jennings, XVIII\/1 [1975], s. 92).<\/p>\n \u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019da kad\u0131na miras hakk\u0131 tan\u0131nm\u0131\u015f ve anne, nine, e\u015f, k\u0131z \u00e7ocu\u011fu, k\u0131z karde\u015f olma durumuna g\u00f6re alacaklar\u0131 pay ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 belirlenmi\u015ftir (en-Nis\u00e2 4\/11-12). Bu hak \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00f6ncesi d\u00f6nemdeki uygulamaya nisbetle \u00f6nemli bir yeniliktir. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu devirde en az\u0131ndan baz\u0131 b\u00f6lge ve kabilelerde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n herhangi bir miras hakk\u0131ndan bahsedilemez. Yerle\u015fmi\u015f geleneklerin birdenbire de\u011fi\u015fti\u011fini de s\u00f6ylemek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir. \u00d6zellikle k\u0131rsal kesimlerde veya \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00f6ncesi uygulaman\u0131n team\u00fcl olarak devam etti\u011fi y\u00f6relerde, belli bir \u00e7eyiz alarak baba evinden ayr\u0131lan k\u0131zlar\u0131n daha sonra mirastan fiilen mahrum kald\u0131klar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir (Levy, s. 146). Ancak k\u0131zlar\u0131n buna raz\u0131 olmad\u0131klar\u0131 durumlarda mahkemeye ba\u015fvurma haklar\u0131 daima mevcut olmu\u015ftur. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n a\u00e7t\u0131klar\u0131 davalar\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n miras ihtil\u00e2flar\u0131na dair olmas\u0131 bu imk\u00e2n\u0131n kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir. 1086\u2019da (1675) \u015fik\u00e2yet defterlerine ge\u00e7en ve \u0130stanbul\u2019da kad\u0131nlar taraf\u0131ndan a\u00e7\u0131lan altm\u0131\u015f iki davadan yirmi d\u00f6rd\u00fc (% 39) miras ihtil\u00e2flar\u0131na dairdir (Fariba Zerinebaf-Shahr, s. 88).<\/p>\n \u0130stisnalar\u0131 olmakla birlikte kad\u0131n\u0131n miras pay\u0131 ayn\u0131 konumdaki erke\u011fin hissesinin yar\u0131s\u0131 kadard\u0131r. \u0130lk bak\u0131\u015fta kad\u0131n\u0131n aleyhine olan bir h\u00fck\u00fcm gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen bu d\u00fczenleme, \u0130sl\u00e2m hukukunun erke\u011fe y\u00fckledi\u011fi mal\u00ee y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fck ve kocan\u0131n aile i\u00e7indeki sorumlulu\u011fuyla birlikte de\u011ferlendirildi\u011finde daha farkl\u0131 bir sonuca var\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Ailenin ge\u00e7im y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn tamam\u0131yla kocaya ait oldu\u011fu, evlenme s\u0131ras\u0131nda kocan\u0131n mehir ad\u0131yla kad\u0131na bir \u00f6demede bulundu\u011fu, ceza hukukunda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan \u201c\u00e2k\u0131le\u201d gibi sosyal yard\u0131mla\u015fma uygulamalar\u0131na sadece erkeklerin kat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda iki cinse d\u00fc\u015fen net pay\u0131n bir anlamda e\u015fitlendi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr.<\/p>\n Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u0130sl\u00e2m tarihi boyunca d\u00f6nemin di\u011fer toplumlar\u0131nda oldu\u011fu gibi genel olarak kamu g\u00f6revinden uzak tutuldu\u011fu bilinmektedir. Ger\u00e7i \u0130sl\u00e2m hukuk\u00e7ular\u0131, kad\u0131n\u0131n devlet ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve h\u00e2kimlik d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda kamu g\u00f6revi yapmas\u0131na umumiyetle kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kmam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Hz. \u00d6mer\u2019in kad\u0131nlar\u0131n devam etti\u011fi Medine pazar\u0131na \u015eif\u00e2 bint Abdullah\u2019\u0131 denetim g\u00f6revlisi olarak tayin etti\u011fi kaydedilmektedir. H\u00e2kimlik konusunda ise farkl\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fler ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. M\u00e2lik\u00ee, \u015e\u00e2fi\u00ee ve Hanbel\u00ee fakihleri aras\u0131nda a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k kazanan g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fe g\u00f6re kad\u0131nlar h\u00e2kimlik yapamaz. Bu fikri savunan hukuk\u00e7ular, devlet ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131na hangi gerek\u00e7elerle kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015flarsa ona benzettikleri h\u00e2kimli\u011fe de ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. H\u00e2kimli\u011fi \u015fahitlik gibi kabul eden Hanef\u00eeler ise had ve k\u0131sas\u0131 gerektiren su\u00e7lar d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki davalarda kad\u0131n\u0131n \u015fahitlik gibi h\u00e2kimlik de yapabilece\u011fini s\u00f6ylemektedir. \u0130bn Cer\u00eer et-Taber\u00ee ve Hasan-\u0131 Basr\u00ee gibi \u00e2limlerle Z\u00e2hir\u00ee fakihleri h\u00fck\u00fcm vermeyi fetva vermeye benzeterek kad\u0131nlar\u0131n her t\u00fcrl\u00fc davada h\u00e2kimlik yapabilece\u011fini belirtirler. Asl\u0131nda bu tart\u0131\u015fmalar b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde teoriktir ve uygulamada kad\u0131nlar\u0131n h\u00e2kimlik yapmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6rnekleri \u00e7ok azd\u0131r. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n h\u00e2kimlik yapmamas\u0131 ve di\u011fer kamu alanlar\u0131nda rol almamas\u0131nda yerle\u015fmi\u015f telakkilerin, kad\u0131n\u0131n aile i\u00e7indeki g\u00f6revlerini aksataca\u011f\u0131 endi\u015fesinin ve kamuda i\u015f imk\u00e2n\u0131n\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 bulunmas\u0131n\u0131n da rol\u00fc olmu\u015ftur. Nitekim zamanla bu s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 g\u00f6revler erkeklerin de ihtiyac\u0131na yetmedi\u011finden baz\u0131 devletlerde kamu g\u00f6revleri s\u00fcrekli olmaktan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, s\u00fcreli hale getirilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lan bir konu da kad\u0131nlar\u0131n devlet ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 meselesidir. \u0130sl\u00e2m tarihinin ilk d\u00f6nemlerinde kad\u0131nlar siyaset alan\u0131ndan b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle uzak de\u011fildiler. Hz. Peygamber\u2019in zaman zaman sah\u00e2b\u00eelerden din\u00ee-siyas\u00ee taahh\u00fct mahiyetinde ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 biatlara kad\u0131nlar da i\u015ftirak etmi\u015ftir. \u0130kinci Akabe Biat\u0131\u2019na ve Bey\u2018at\u00fcrr\u0131dv\u00e2n\u2019a kad\u0131nlar\u0131n da kat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmektedir. Ancak bu uygulama Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem\u2019in d\u00f6nemiyle s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve sonraki devirlerde \u0130sl\u00e2m toplumundan al\u0131nan biatlara kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair bilgi yoktur. Ger\u00e7i Hz. \u00d6mer\u2019in vefat\u0131 \u00fczerine kimin halife olaca\u011f\u0131 konusunda Medine\u2019nin ileri gelenleriyle g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fen ve bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fmeler \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Hz. Osman\u2019\u0131 halife olarak belirleyen Abdurrahman b. Avf erkeklerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra kad\u0131nlar\u0131n da fikrini alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (\u0130bn Kes\u00eer, VII, 146; Abd\u00fclker\u00eem Zeyd\u00e2n, IV, 319). Hz. Osman\u2019\u0131n yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 tayinler sebebiyle ele\u015ftirilmesi \u00fczerine bundan b\u00f6yle sah\u00e2benin ileri gelenlerinin ve bu arada Hz. Peygamber\u2019in han\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc almadan tayin yapmayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemesi, en az\u0131ndan peygamber han\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131n Medine siyas\u00ee yap\u0131s\u0131ndaki etkin rol\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6stermesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan dikkat \u00e7ekicidir. Yine Hz. Ali\u2019nin hil\u00e2fetinin ilk y\u0131llar\u0131nda Cemel Vak\u2018as\u0131 ile sonu\u00e7lanan olaylarda Hz. \u00c2i\u015fe\u2019nin siyas\u00ee rol\u00fc \u00e7ok belirgindir ve hi\u00e7 kimse ona kad\u0131n olmas\u0131 sebebiyle itiraz etmemi\u015ftir. Ancak yine de bu alan sonraki d\u00f6nemlerde kad\u0131nlara kapal\u0131 kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n Klasik kaynaklarda devlet ba\u015fkan\u0131nda aranan nitelikler say\u0131l\u0131rken erkek olmas\u0131 da genelde zikredilir. Buna delil olarak da Hz. Peygamber\u2019in, \u201cY\u00f6netimlerini kad\u0131na teslim eden bir toplum ifl\u00e2h olmaz\u201d hadisi g\u00f6sterilir (Buh\u00e2r\u00ee, \u201cMe\u0121\u0101z\u00ee\u201d, 82, \u201cFiten\u201d, 18; Tirmiz\u00ee, \u201cFiten\u201d, 75; M\u00fcsned, V, 50, 51). Devlet ba\u015fkan\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6zellikle \u0130sl\u00e2m hukukunun te\u015fekk\u00fcl d\u00f6nemlerinde ordunun ba\u015f\u0131nda sefere \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131, din\u00ee g\u00f6revleri aras\u0131nda cuma hutbesini okumas\u0131 ve namaz\u0131 k\u0131ld\u0131rmas\u0131, bunlardan bilhassa ikincisi i\u00e7in onun erkek olman\u0131n gereklili\u011fini kuvvetlendirici delil olarak say\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Ancak \u00f6zellikle \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar\u0131n dikkat \u00e7ektikleri konu, bu hususta Kur\u2019\u00e2n-\u0131 Ker\u00eem\u2019de yasaklay\u0131c\u0131 bir h\u00fckm\u00fcn yer almamas\u0131 ve Sab\u00e2 Melikesi Belk\u0131s\u2019tan bahsedilirken (en-Neml 27\/23-44) hi\u00e7bir olumsuz ifadenin zikredilmemi\u015f olmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n Her kamu g\u00f6revi gibi devlet ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in de en \u00f6nemli \u015fart\u0131n liyakat oldu\u011funu g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcnde bulunduran \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar kad\u0131nlar\u0131n devlet ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 dahil her t\u00fcrl\u00fc g\u00f6revi \u00fcstlenebileceklerini, imaml\u0131\u011f\u0131n veya ordu kumandanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n bizzat devlet ba\u015fkan\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n gerekmedi\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrerler. Bunlara g\u00f6re Hz. Peygamber\u2019in kad\u0131n\u0131n devlet ba\u015fkan\u0131 olamayaca\u011f\u0131 yolundaki s\u00f6zleri, b\u00fct\u00fcn as\u0131rlar\u0131 ba\u011flay\u0131c\u0131 bir h\u00fck\u00fcm olmaktan ziyade kendi d\u00f6nemiyle ilgili bir tesbittir. Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem bu s\u00f6zleriyle, o d\u00f6nemde bir kad\u0131n\u0131n y\u00f6netiminde bulunan S\u00e2s\u00e2n\u00ee Devleti\u2019nin uzun s\u00fcreli olmayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 haber vermektedir, nitekim de \u00f6yle olmu\u015ftur. Esasen \u0130sl\u00e2m tarihinde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n devlet ba\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmektedir. Yemen\u2019de h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren Suleyh\u00eeler\u2019de H\u00fcrre es-Suleyh\u0131yye \u00f6nce kocas\u0131n\u0131n sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Yemen\u2019i idare etmi\u015f, onun \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc \u00fczerine de tek ba\u015f\u0131na h\u00fck\u00fcmran olmu\u015ftur. Delhi\u2019de Sultan \u015eemseddin \u0130ltutmu\u015f\u2019un 1236\u2019da \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonra devleti d\u00f6rt y\u0131l k\u0131z\u0131 Rad\u0131yye Beg\u00fcm y\u00f6netmi\u015ftir. Eyy\u00fbb\u00ee H\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 el-Melik\u00fc\u2019s-S\u00e2lih Necmeddin Eyy\u00fbb Ha\u00e7l\u0131lar\u2019la sava\u015f\u0131rken vefat edince sava\u015f\u0131n sonuna kadar \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc gizli tutulmu\u015f ve ard\u0131ndan yerine Turan \u015eah ge\u00e7mi\u015ftir. Fakat kumandanlar\u0131n Turan \u015eah\u2019\u0131 kabul etmemesi \u00fczerine Necmeddin Eyy\u00fbb\u2019un e\u015fi \u015eecer\u00fcdd\u00fcr h\u00fck\u00fcmdar olmu\u015f; ad\u0131na hutbe okunmu\u015f ve sikke bast\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca \u0130ran\u2019da h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren T\u00fcrk Atabeyi Boz-aba\u2019n\u0131n e\u015fi Z\u00e2hide Hatun ve Salgurlular\u2019\u0131n son h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 \u00c2bi\u015f Hatun da \u00f6rnek olarak zikredilebilir.<\/p>\n Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u015fah\u0131slar\u0131n\u0131 ve mal varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 ilgilendiren konularda bizzat veya bir vekil vas\u0131tas\u0131yla mahkemeye ba\u015fvurduklar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Kad\u0131nlar i\u00e7in bazan mahkemelerde \u00f6zel bir g\u00fcn ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015fsa da (Jennings, s. 58) genelde ihtiya\u00e7 duyduklar\u0131nda ba\u015fvurmalar\u0131 usul\u00fc uygulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. 1680-1706 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda \u015fik\u00e2yet defterlerine ge\u00e7en ve \u0130stanbul\u2019dan yap\u0131lan ba\u015fvurular\u0131n % 8,24\u2019\u00fc kad\u0131nlara aittir. 1675\u2019te Bursa\u2019daki \u015fik\u00e2yetler de ayn\u0131 oranlardad\u0131r (% 8,5). Bu oran Kayseri ve Ankara\u2019da daha y\u00fcksektir (Fariba Zerinebaf-Shahr, s. 86). XVI. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Kayseri\u2019de mahkemeye intikal eden davalar\u0131n % 17\u2019sinde taraflardan biri kad\u0131nd\u0131r. Bu ba\u015fvurular\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7te ikisini kad\u0131nlar bizzat yapm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n taraf oldu\u011fu davalar\u0131n genel davalar i\u00e7indeki oran\u0131 Amasya\u2019da % 24, Karaman\u2019da % 37, Trabzon\u2019da % 42\u2019dir (Jennings, s. 59). Rakamlar\u0131n farkl\u0131 olmas\u0131, di\u011fer \u015fartlar yan\u0131nda ba\u015fvurulan mahkemenin mahall\u00ee veya \u00fcst mahkeme olmas\u0131yla da ilgilidir ve kad\u0131nlar\u0131n mahall\u00ee mahkemelere daha s\u0131k ba\u015fvurduklar\u0131 anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Haim Gerber, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n erkeklere kar\u015f\u0131 a\u00e7t\u0131klar\u0131 davalar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funda hakl\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemektedir (State Society and Law in Islam, s. 56).<\/p>\n Yarg\u0131lama hukukunda bug\u00fcn en fazla tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lan konu kad\u0131n\u0131n \u015fahitli\u011fidir. Kur\u2019\u00e2n-\u0131 Ker\u00eem, bir bor\u00e7lanma s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funda bunun iki erkekle veya bir erkek iki kad\u0131n\u0131n \u015fahitli\u011fiyle tesbitini istemektedir (el-Bakara 2\/282). Hukuk\u00e7ular\u0131n bir k\u0131sm\u0131 \u00e2yetin h\u00fckm\u00fcn\u00fc genel d\u00fczenleme olarak kabul etmekte ve her t\u00fcrl\u00fc ihtil\u00e2fta iki kad\u0131n\u0131n bir erkek \u015fahit yerine ge\u00e7mesi gerekti\u011fini s\u00f6ylemektedir. \u00c7o\u011funluk ise kazf su\u00e7uyla ilgili \u00e2yetteki (en-N\u00fbr 24\/4) \u015fahit kelimesinin m\u00fczekker kullan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 dikkate alarak had ve k\u0131sas su\u00e7lar\u0131nda sadece erkeklerin tan\u0131kl\u0131k yapabilece\u011fini, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n tan\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ge\u00e7erli olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcrmektedir. Ancak Arap\u00e7a\u2019da erkek ve kad\u0131nlar birlikte s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funda m\u00fczekker kelimenin kullan\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmektedir. Bu sebeple kazf \u00e2yetindeki ifade, kad\u0131n-erkek ay\u0131r\u0131m\u0131 yap\u0131lmaks\u0131z\u0131n d\u00f6rt \u015fahidin arand\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015feklinde de yorumlanabilir. Kur\u2019\u00e2n-\u0131 Ker\u00eem\u2019de \u015fahitlikle ilgili iki \u00e2yet daha vard\u0131r. \u00d6l\u00fcm yakla\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131nda iki \u015fahit huzurunda vasiyette bulunulmas\u0131n\u0131 tavsiye eden \u00e2yetle (el-M\u00e2ide 5\/106) evlili\u011fin sona erdi\u011finin \u015fahitlerle belirlenmesini \u00f6\u011f\u00fctleyen \u00e2yette (et-Tal\u00e2k 65\/2) erkek-kad\u0131n ay\u0131r\u0131m\u0131 yap\u0131lmaks\u0131z\u0131n mutlak anlamda \u015fahitlerin bulunmas\u0131 istenmi\u015ftir. Bu \u00e2yetlerde de m\u00fczekker kelimenin kullan\u0131lmas\u0131 sadece erkek \u015fahitlerin kastedildi\u011fini g\u00f6stermek i\u00e7in yeterli de\u011fildir. Nitekim bu kanaati payla\u015fan \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f yazarlar, g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini teyit etmek i\u00e7in zina isnad\u0131na m\u00e2ruz kalan kimsenin yeminle kendini temize \u00e7\u0131karmas\u0131 i\u015flemini g\u00f6stermekte ve burada erke\u011fin de kad\u0131n\u0131n da d\u00f6rt \u015fahit yerine ge\u00e7mek \u00fczere d\u00f6rder defa yemin etti\u011fini (en-N\u00fbr 24\/6-9), dolay\u0131s\u0131yla aralar\u0131nda fark g\u00f6zetilmedi\u011fini s\u00f6ylemektedir (Akdemir, X [1997], s. 255). Klasik hukuk\u00e7ular, bir erkek yerine iki kad\u0131n \u015fahit aranmas\u0131n\u0131 genelde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n unutkanl\u0131k gibi var say\u0131lan zaaflar\u0131yla a\u00e7\u0131klarken \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f ara\u015ft\u0131rmac\u0131lar, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n o d\u00f6nemde ticar\u00ee i\u015flemlere erkekler kadar v\u00e2k\u0131f olmamalar\u0131yla izah ederler (Fazlurrahman, s. 92; Akdemir, X [1997], s. 254). Bunu teyit eden bir ba\u015fka \u00f6rnek, Hz. Peygamber\u2019in bedev\u00eenin \u015fehirliye \u015fahitli\u011finin ge\u00e7erli olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirten hadisidir (Eb\u00fb D\u00e2v\u00fbd, \u201cA\u1e33\u017c\u0131ye\u201d, 17; \u0130bn M\u00e2ce, \u201cA\u1e25k\u00e2m\u201d, 30). Burada bedev\u00eenin \u015fahitli\u011finin ge\u00e7erli say\u0131lmamas\u0131 \u015fehir hayat\u0131na yabanc\u0131 olmas\u0131 ve hadiseleri yanl\u0131\u015f alg\u0131lamas\u0131 ihtimaliyle ilgilidir. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n do\u011frudan bilgi sahibi oldu\u011fu do\u011fum vb. durumlarda sadece iki kad\u0131n\u0131n, hatta zaruret halinde bir kad\u0131n\u0131n \u015fahitli\u011finin yeterli g\u00f6r\u00fclmesi, bir erkek yerine iki kad\u0131n\u0131n \u015fahitli\u011fini istemenin ticar\u00ee tecr\u00fcbe azl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan kaynakland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 do\u011frular niteliktedir.<\/p>\n Sosyal Konumu. Kad\u0131n\u0131n sosyal konumu, \u0130sl\u00e2m tarihi ve co\u011frafyas\u0131 i\u00e7inde hukuk\u00ee konumundan daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00e7e\u015fitlilik arzeder. Bunda toplumlar\u0131n \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00f6ncesinden getirdikleri \u00f6rf ve \u00e2detlerin, din\u00ee al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131klar\u0131n, etnik ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n \u00f6nemli rol\u00fc vard\u0131r. Burada belirtilmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131lan sosyal konumun \u00f6zellikle incelenen b\u00f6lge ve d\u00f6nemlere ait bir tablo ortaya koydu\u011fu unutulmamal\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n \u0130sl\u00e2miyet\u2019in Arap kad\u0131n\u0131n\u0131n sosyal stat\u00fcs\u00fcnde k\u00f6kl\u00fc de\u011fi\u015fiklikler meydana getirdi\u011fi \u015f\u00fcphesizdir. Hz. \u00d6mer\u2019in, \u201cDo\u011frusu biz C\u00e2hiliye devrinde kad\u0131nlara \u00f6nem vermezdik, nihayet Allah \u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019\u0131n geli\u015fiyle kad\u0131nlar hakk\u0131nda \u00e2yetler indirmi\u015f ve bir\u00e7ok hak tan\u0131m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u201d s\u00f6z\u00fc, \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00f6ncesi d\u00f6nemin genel kad\u0131n anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermesi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan dikkat \u00e7ekicidir. \u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019dan sonraki d\u00f6nemde kad\u0131n-erkek ili\u015fkilerine, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n k\u0131yafetine y\u00f6nelik birtak\u0131m s\u0131n\u0131rlamalar getirilmi\u015ftir. Ancak bunlar aile birli\u011fini ve de\u011ferlerini koruma hedefine y\u00f6neliktir. Zira \u0130sl\u00e2m hem ailenin hem aileyi ve toplumu ayakta tutan de\u011ferlerin korunmas\u0131na b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6nem vermi\u015ftir. Medine d\u00f6neminde inen \u00e2yetler (en-N\u00fbr 24\/31, 60; el-Ahz\u00e2b 33\/59) kad\u0131nlara \u00f6rt\u00fcnme mecburiyeti getirmi\u015fse de (bk. TESETT\u00dcR) bu mecburiyet kad\u0131n\u0131n sosyal etkinli\u011fini k\u0131s\u0131tlama amac\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131mamaktad\u0131r. Nitekim Asr-\u0131 sa\u00e2det\u2019te kad\u0131nlar sonraki devirlerde rastlanmayacak \u015fekilde sosyal hayata i\u015ftirak etmi\u015flerdir. Mescid-i Nebev\u00ee\u2019deki ibadet hayat\u0131na kat\u0131lmalar\u0131, bayram, d\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn vb. e\u011flencelere i\u015ftirakleri bunun g\u00f6stergesidir. Hz. \u00c2i\u015fe, Medine\u2019de bir bayram g\u00fcn\u00fc Sudanl\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131lan g\u00f6steriyi Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem\u2019in yan\u0131nda izledi\u011fini nakletmektedir. Bu d\u00f6nemde kad\u0131nlar \u0130sl\u00e2miyet\u2019i \u00f6\u011frenme hususunda da istekli g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir. Hz. Peygamber\u2019in kad\u0131nlar\u0131n sorular\u0131na cevap vermek ve onlara dini \u00f6\u011fretmek i\u00e7in \u00f6zel bir g\u00fcn ay\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmektedir. Bu sayede sah\u00e2b\u00eeler aras\u0131nda dini iyi bilen kad\u0131nlar yeti\u015fmi\u015ftir (Ham\u00eedullah, II, 836). Hz. \u00c2i\u015fe bunlar\u0131n en \u00f6nde gelenlerindendir ve bir\u00e7ok din\u00ee h\u00fckm\u00fcn sonraki nesillere intikalinde \u00f6nemli hizmetler ifa etmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n sava\u015flarda da aktif rol \u00fcstlendikleri, yaral\u0131lar\u0131n tedavisi, su ve yiyecek verilmesi gibi hizmetlerde bulunduklar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Uhud ve Huneyn sava\u015flar\u0131na kat\u0131lan \u00dcmm\u00fc S\u00fcleym ve \u00dcmm\u00fc Har\u00e2m, Uhud\u2019a kat\u0131lan \u00dcmm\u00fc Sal\u00eet, Hayber Gazvesi\u2019ne i\u015ftirak eden \u00dcmm\u00fc Sin\u00e2n el-Eslemiyye ve bir\u00e7ok gazveye kat\u0131lan Rubeyyi\u2018 bint Muavviz bunlardand\u0131r. Bu d\u00f6nemde kad\u0131nlar gerekti\u011finde haklar\u0131n\u0131 aramaktan da geri durmam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Hz. Peygamber\u2019in han\u0131m\u0131 \u00dcmm\u00fc Seleme\u2019nin Kur\u2019an \u00e2yetlerinde sadece erkeklere hitap ediliyormu\u015f gibi bir izlenim elde edilmesinin sebebini sormas\u0131 ve bundan dolay\u0131 m\u00fcsl\u00fcman erkeklerin ve kad\u0131nlar\u0131n sorumluluklar\u0131na ayr\u0131 ayr\u0131 i\u015faret eden Ahz\u00e2b s\u00fbresinin 35. \u00e2yetinin n\u00e2zil olmas\u0131, kocas\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan evlilik ili\u015fkisine fiilen son verilen Havle bint Sa\u2018lebe\u2019nin, durumu Res\u00fbl-i Ekrem\u2019e kadar g\u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fcp d\u00fczeltilmesi konusunda \u0131srar etmesi ve bunun \u00fczerine, \u201cAllah kocas\u0131 hususunda seninle tart\u0131\u015fan ve halinden Allah\u2019a \u015fik\u00e2yet eden kad\u0131n\u0131n s\u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc i\u015fitti\u201d s\u00f6zleriyle ba\u015flayan \u00e2yetlerin inmesi (el-M\u00fcc\u00e2dile 58\/1-4), Hz. \u00d6mer\u2019in kad\u0131nlara \u00f6denen mehre bir \u00fcst s\u0131n\u0131r getirme te\u015febb\u00fcs\u00fcnden bir kad\u0131n\u0131n, \u201cAllah kad\u0131nlara verilen mehrin y\u00fcklerle olsa bile geri al\u0131nmayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 beyan ederken (en-Nis\u00e2 4\/20) siz nas\u0131l buna s\u0131n\u0131r getirirsiniz\u201d diye itiraz etmesi \u00fczerine vazge\u00e7mesi sadece birka\u00e7 \u00f6rnektir.<\/p>\n Emev\u00eeler\u2019den itibaren \u015fehirle\u015fme oran\u0131 artt\u0131k\u00e7a kad\u0131nlar\u0131n ve \u00f6zellikle \u00fcst tabakada yer alan han\u0131mlar\u0131n kendilerine has bir sosyal hayat tarz\u0131 kurduklar\u0131 ve erkek a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131kl\u0131 sosyal yap\u0131dan \u00e7ekildikleri g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Esasen bir kabile i\u00e7inde ve k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck yerle\u015fim birimlerinde s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclen birbirini tan\u0131maya dayal\u0131 sosyal ili\u015fkilerin \u015fehirle\u015fme ile birlikte ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde devam etmesi m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu de\u011fi\u015fimde ataerkil aile anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n da etkili oldu\u011fu muhakkakt\u0131r. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n camilerden uzakla\u015fmaya ba\u015flamas\u0131 bu d\u00f6nemde daha belirgin hale gelmi\u015ftir. Ancak onlar\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle kendi i\u00e7lerine kapand\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek de m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir. Nitekim kad\u0131nlar da ilim ve k\u00fclt\u00fcr hayat\u0131nda olduk\u00e7a \u00f6nemli bir yer i\u015fgal etmi\u015flerdir. \u0130sl\u00e2m d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda e\u011fitimin gayri resm\u00ee bir yap\u0131 i\u00e7inde s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclmesi ve okula de\u011fil hocaya ba\u011flanman\u0131n esas olmas\u0131, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n yak\u0131n \u00e7evrelerindeki ilim adamlar\u0131ndan e\u011fitim almalar\u0131n\u0131 kolayla\u015ft\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130lim sahibi kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir k\u0131sm\u0131n\u0131n ulem\u00e2 aileleri i\u00e7inde yeti\u015fmesi bunun g\u00f6stergesidir. Bu arada kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u00f6zellikle hadis ilmine y\u00f6neldi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. T\u00e2ceddin es-S\u00fcbk\u00ee\u2019nin hadis dinleyip \u00f6\u011frendi\u011fi \u00fcstatlar aras\u0131nda on dokuz kad\u0131n\u0131n ad\u0131 ge\u00e7mektedir. S\u00fcy\u00fbt\u00ee otuz \u00fc\u00e7, \u0130bn Hacer el-Askal\u00e2n\u00ee elli \u00fc\u00e7, \u0130bn As\u00e2kir seksen kad\u0131ndan hadis \u00f6\u011frenmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n \u0130sl\u00e2m d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda \u00e7ok erken d\u00f6nemlerden itibaren \u015fair, mutasavv\u0131f ve \u00e2lim kad\u0131nlar\u0131n yeti\u015fti\u011fi bilinmektedir. \u0130bn Sa\u2018d\u2019\u0131n sah\u00e2benin hayat\u0131na dair e\u1e6d-\u1e6caba\u1e33\u0101t\u00fc\u2019l-k\u00fcbr\u00e2\u2019s\u0131 ile \u0130bn Hacer el-Askal\u00e2n\u00ee\u2019nin ayn\u0131 mahiyetteki el-\u0130\u1e63\u00e2be\u2019sinin son cildi, \u0130bn Abd\u00fclber en-Nemer\u00ee\u2019nin el-\u0130st\u00ee\u02bf\u00e2b f\u00ee ma\u02bfrifeti\u2019l-a\u1e63\u1e25\u00e2b adl\u0131 d\u00f6rt b\u00f6l\u00fcmden ibaret eserinin son iki b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc kad\u0131n sah\u00e2b\u00eelere ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130bn Sa\u2018d\u2019\u0131n biyografisini verdi\u011fi han\u0131m say\u0131s\u0131 700\u2019\u00fcn, \u0130bn Hacer\u2019in ise 1500\u2019\u00fcn \u00fcst\u00fcndedir. \u0130bn\u00fc\u2019l-Es\u00eer\u2019in \u00dcsd\u00fc\u2019l-\u0121\u0101be f\u00ee ma\u02bfrifeti\u2019\u1e63-\u1e63a\u1e25\u00e2be\u2019si ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde kad\u0131n sah\u00e2b\u00eeleri de i\u00e7erir. Eb\u00fb Nuaym el-\u0130sfah\u00e2n\u00ee\u2019nin \u1e24ilyet\u00fc\u2019l-evliy\u00e2\u02be adl\u0131 eserinde kad\u0131n mutasavv\u0131flara da yer verilir. Zeheb\u00ee\u2019nin Siyeru a\u02bfl\u00e2mi\u2019n-n\u00fcbel\u00e2\u02be isimli biyografik eseri ileri gelen kad\u0131n \u015fahsiyetlerden de bahseder. Abd\u00fclk\u0101dir el-Kure\u015f\u00ee\u2019nin Hanef\u00ee hukuk\u00e7ular\u0131na dair el-Cev\u00e2hir\u00fc\u2019l-mu\u1e0d\u0131yye\u2019sinde kad\u0131n fakihlere de bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130bn Hacer el-Askal\u00e2n\u00ee\u2019nin Teh\u1e95ib\u00fc\u2019t-Teh\u1e95\u00eeb ve ed-D\u00fcrer\u00fc\u2019l-k\u00e2mine adl\u0131 eserlerinde hadis r\u00e2visi ve ilim adamlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda kad\u0131nlar da incelenir. Seh\u00e2v\u00ee\u2019nin IX. (XV.) y\u00fczy\u0131l ulem\u00e2s\u0131na dair e\u1e0d-\u1e0cav\u02be\u00fc\u2019l-l\u00e2mi\u02bfinin son cildi bu as\u0131rdaki ileri gelen kad\u0131nlar\u0131 ihtiva eder. \u0130bn\u00fc\u2019l-\u0130m\u00e2d olaylara, ilim ve devlet adamlar\u0131n\u0131n biyografilerine yer verdi\u011fi \u015ee\u1e95er\u00e2t\u00fc\u2019\u1e95-\u1e95eheb\u2019ine kad\u0131n \u00e2limleri de alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu eserler, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u0130sl\u00e2m k\u00fclt\u00fcr tarihinde k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fcmsenmeyecek bir yere sahip olduklar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir.<\/p>\n II. (VIII.) y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kendi aralar\u0131nda y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fckleri sosyal etkinliklerin ba\u015f\u0131nda d\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn, do\u011fum, s\u00fcnnet, \u00f6l\u00fcm m\u00fcnasebetiyle yap\u0131lan t\u00f6renler, mezarl\u0131klar\u0131n, t\u00fcrbe ve yat\u0131rlar\u0131n ziyareti ve din\u00ee ihtifaller gelir. Hz. Peygamber\u2019in do\u011fum g\u00fcn\u00fc m\u00fcnasebetiyle yap\u0131lan mevlid kutlamalar\u0131 sonraki as\u0131rlarda \u00f6zel bir \u00f6nem kazanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u015ei\u00ee muhitlerde Kerbel\u00e2 Vak\u2018as\u0131\u2019n\u0131n ve \u00e2\u015f\u00fbr\u00e2 g\u00fcn\u00fcn\u00fcn \u00f6zel anma \u015fekilleri vard\u0131r. H\u0131drellez kutlamalar\u0131, T\u00fcrk ve Fars muhitlerinde daha \u00e7ok kad\u0131n ve \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n kat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir sosyal etkinliktir. Yine \u00f6zellikle T\u00fcrk k\u00fclt\u00fcr muhitlerinde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n gruplar halinde hamama gitmeleri temizlenme amac\u0131n\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra e\u011flenme amac\u0131n\u0131n da g\u00f6zetildi\u011fi \u00f6nemli bir sosyal etkinliktir. \u0130stanbul\u2019da L\u00e2le Devri\u2019nden itibaren K\u00e2\u011f\u0131thane, Bo\u011fazi\u00e7i, \u00c7aml\u0131ca ve Kahire\u2019de Nil k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131 kad\u0131nlar\u0131n iltifat etti\u011fi e\u011flence merkezleridir. Ancak zaman zaman buralardaki e\u011flenceler bir s\u0131n\u0131rlamaya t\u00e2bi tutulmu\u015ftur. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kendileriyle ilgili al\u0131\u015fveri\u015fleri bizzat yapt\u0131klar\u0131, bunun i\u00e7in \u00f6zel pazarlar\u0131n ve g\u00fcnlerin tahsis edildi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Kad\u0131n seyyar sat\u0131c\u0131lar\u0131n mahalleler aras\u0131nda dola\u015farak evlere girip mallar\u0131n\u0131 bizzat kad\u0131n m\u00fc\u015fterilerin aya\u011f\u0131na g\u00f6t\u00fcrmesi olduk\u00e7a yayg\u0131n bir usuld\u00fcr. Osmanl\u0131 saray han\u0131mlar\u0131n\u0131n al\u0131\u015fveri\u015flerine arac\u0131l\u0131k eden \u201ckira kad\u0131nlar\u0131\u201d dikkate de\u011fer bir \u00f6rnektir.<\/p>\n \u00d6te yandan \u0130sl\u00e2m tarihinin hemen her d\u00f6neminde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n siyas\u00ee hayatta etkin rol ald\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6rnekleri de vard\u0131r. Bilhassa T\u00fcrk h\u00e2nedanlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda h\u00fck\u00fcmdar e\u015flerinin veya annelerinin etkin bi\u00e7imde devlet i\u015flerine kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 bilinmektedir. Tu\u011frul Bey \u00f6nemli i\u015flerini han\u0131m\u0131 Altuncan Hatun\u2019a dan\u0131\u015f\u0131rd\u0131. Melik\u015fah\u2019\u0131n iki e\u015fi Terken Hatun ve Z\u00fcbeyde Hatun\u2019un hakan \u00fczerinde \u00f6nemli etkileri vard\u0131. Abb\u00e2s\u00eeler\u2019de Halife Mehd\u00ee-Bill\u00e2h\u2019\u0131n han\u0131m\u0131 ve M\u00fbs\u00e2 el-H\u00e2d\u00ee ile H\u00e2r\u00fbn\u00fcrre\u015f\u00eed\u2019in annesi Hayz\u00fcr\u00e2n, Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nde K\u00f6sem V\u00e2lide Sultan, H\u00e2rizm\u015fahlar\u2019da Al\u00e2eddin Teki\u015f Han\u2019\u0131n e\u015fi Terken Hatun, Karah\u0131tay h\u00e2nedan\u0131na mensup Kutlu\u011fhanl\u0131lar\u2019da Kirman h\u00e2kimi Kutb\u00fcddin Muhammed Han\u2019\u0131n e\u015fi Kutlu\u011f Terken Hatun, Safev\u00eeler\u2019de \u015eah Tahmasb\u2019\u0131n k\u0131z\u0131 Zeyneb Beg\u00fcm ve Perihan Han\u0131m ayr\u0131ca \u00f6rnek g\u00f6sterilebilir.<\/p>\n Modernle\u015fme D\u00f6nemi. Kad\u0131n\u0131n klasik d\u00f6nemdeki sosyal, ekonomik ve hukuk\u00ee konumu XIX. y\u00fczy\u0131la gelinceye kadar k\u00f6kl\u00fc de\u011fi\u015fikliklere u\u011framam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu hususta ilk de\u011fi\u015fme modernle\u015fme s\u00fcrecinde ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu d\u00f6nemde Bat\u0131\u2019da kad\u0131n\u0131n sosyal ve hukuk\u00ee konumundaki geli\u015fmeler \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde \u0130sl\u00e2m d\u00fcnyas\u0131na tesir etmi\u015ftir. 1850\u2019li y\u0131llardan itibaren gerek Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nde ve ona ba\u011fl\u0131 bir eyalet stat\u00fcs\u00fcndeki M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da gerekse \u0130ran\u2019da bir taraftan k\u0131z liseleriyle \u00f6\u011fretmen okullar\u0131n\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131, k\u0131zlar\u0131n \u00fcniversiteye kabul edilmesi, di\u011fer taraftan bas\u0131nda kad\u0131n haklar\u0131 konusundaki yaz\u0131lar\u0131n gittik\u00e7e artan bir oranda yer almas\u0131, kad\u0131nlara y\u00f6nelik gazete ve dergilerin yay\u0131mlanmas\u0131 kad\u0131n hareketine yeni bir ivme kazand\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bunun sonucunda \u0130sl\u00e2m hukukunda ve m\u00fcsl\u00fcman toplumlar\u0131n k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcnde yer alan kad\u0131n anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131na y\u00f6nelik ciddi ele\u015ftiriler g\u00f6r\u00fclmeye ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n e\u011fitimi alan\u0131nda ilk geli\u015fmeler 1858\u2019de k\u0131z r\u00fc\u015fdiyelerinin a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131yla ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar. Bunu 1870\u2019te a\u00e7\u0131lan k\u0131z \u00f6\u011fretmen okullar\u0131 takip eder. II. Me\u015frutiyet d\u00f6neminde \u00fcniversitede k\u0131zlar i\u00e7in ayr\u0131 bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. E\u011fitim\u00f6\u011fretimin kad\u0131nlar \u00fczerinde yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 etkilerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra XIX. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nin Rusya ve ard\u0131ndan Yunanistan\u2019la, XX. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131nda Balkan devletleri ve \u0130til\u00e2f devletleriyle pe\u015f pe\u015fe sava\u015flara girmesi kad\u0131n\u0131n sosyal ve ekonomik hayat\u0131ndaki geli\u015fmeleri h\u0131zland\u0131rm\u0131\u015f, bunu da hukuk\u00ee hayattaki de\u011fi\u015fmeler izlemi\u015ftir. S\u00f6z\u00fc edilen sava\u015flar kad\u0131nlar\u0131n sosyal etkinliklerin i\u00e7ine \u00f6nceki d\u00f6nemlerde hi\u00e7 rastlanmayan bi\u00e7imde girmesini sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f; bu arada M\u00e2l\u00fbl ve Hasta Askerlere Yard\u0131m Cem\u2018iyyet-i Osm\u00e2niyyesi, Cem\u2018iyyet-i \u0130md\u00e2diyye, Hil\u00e2liahmer Kad\u0131nlar Cemiyeti, Donanma Cemiyeti Han\u0131mlar \u015eubesi, Osmanl\u0131 M\u00fcd\u00e2faa-i Huk\u016bk-i Nisv\u00e2n Cemiyeti gibi cemiyetler kad\u0131nlar taraf\u0131ndan kurulmu\u015f veya desteklenmi\u015ftir. \u00d6te yandan sava\u015fa giden erkeklerin fabrika ve imal\u00e2thanelerde bo\u015f b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 yerler kad\u0131nlar taraf\u0131ndan doldurulmu\u015ftur. B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar kad\u0131nlar\u0131n sosyal ve ekonomik hayata etkin bi\u00e7imde kat\u0131lmalar\u0131 sonucunu do\u011furmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n Bu geli\u015fmelere paralel olarak kad\u0131n\u0131n sosyal, ekonomik ve hukuk\u00ee hayattaki konumu Osmanl\u0131 ayd\u0131nlar\u0131 aras\u0131nda yo\u011fun \u015fekilde tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmaya ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu d\u00f6nemde kendilerine has bak\u0131\u015flar\u0131 ve \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm \u00f6nerileri bulunan Bat\u0131c\u0131lar, \u0130sl\u00e2mc\u0131lar ve T\u00fcrk\u00e7\u00fcler\u2019in kad\u0131n\u0131n evlenme ve bo\u015fanma ehliyeti, \u00e7ok evlilik, \u00f6rt\u00fcnme, sosyal hayattaki rol\u00fc, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan kad\u0131n\u0131n problemleri gibi hususlar \u00fczerinde durduklar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. Tart\u0131\u015fmalar, bir taraftan Osmanl\u0131 Aile Kanunu\u2019nun muhtevas\u0131na tesir ederken di\u011fer taraftan Cumhuriyet sonras\u0131 T\u00fcrk kad\u0131n\u0131n\u0131n alaca\u011f\u0131 sosyal ve hukuk\u00ee konumu etkilemi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da kad\u0131nlar\u0131n e\u011fitimi yolundaki ilk ad\u0131m 1837\u2019de kurulan k\u0131z ilkokulu ile ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f, bu alanda ilk ciddi te\u015febb\u00fcsler Hidiv \u0130sm\u00e2il Pa\u015fa zaman\u0131nda ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmi\u015ftir. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da 1874\u2019te bir k\u0131z ortaokulu a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015f, 1875\u2019te ortaokula giden 5362 \u00f6\u011frenciden 890\u2019\u0131n\u0131 k\u0131z \u00f6\u011frenciler te\u015fkil etmi\u015ftir. M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da k\u0131zlar\u0131n e\u011fitiminde \u00f6zel kurumlar\u0131n da \u00f6nemli rol\u00fc olmu\u015f, ba\u015fta Muhammed Abduh olmak \u00fczere \u015fah\u0131slar\u0131n \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki kurumlar e\u011fitime devletten daha fazla katk\u0131da bulunmu\u015ftur. 1897\u2019de devlet okullar\u0131nda 863 k\u0131z \u00f6\u011frenci okurken bu kurumlar\u0131n a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 mekteplere 1164 \u00f6\u011frenci devam etmekteydi. Bu arada yabanc\u0131lara ait okullarda da \u00e7ok say\u0131da k\u0131z \u00f6\u011frenci mevcuttu. XX. y\u00fczy\u0131lda M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019daki geli\u015fmeler h\u0131zlanarak devam etmi\u015f, 1920\u2019de ilk defa \u00fcniversiteye k\u0131z \u00f6\u011frenci kabul edilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n Bu geli\u015fmelerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nde oldu\u011fu gibi M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da da ayd\u0131nlar aras\u0131nda kad\u0131n meselesi tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmaya ba\u015fland\u0131. Bir taraftan Cem\u00e2ledd\u00een-i Efg\u0101n\u00ee, Muhammed Abduh ve M. Re\u015f\u00eed R\u0131z\u00e2 gibi modernist \u0130sl\u00e2mc\u0131lar kad\u0131n\u0131n konumunu \u0130sl\u00e2m hukuku ve k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc i\u00e7inde iyile\u015ftirme amac\u0131yla k\u00f6kl\u00fc reformlar teklif ederken di\u011fer taraftan Bat\u0131\u2019ya daha \u00e7ok ba\u011fl\u0131 olan K\u0101s\u0131m Em\u00een gibi reformistler kad\u0131n\u0131n hukuk\u00ee ve sosyal konumunda reform yap\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 istemi\u015flerdir. K\u0101s\u0131m Em\u00een\u2019in Ta\u1e25r\u00eer\u00fc\u2019l-mer\u02bee adl\u0131 kitab\u0131 bu alanda \u00f6nemli bir eser olup etkileri M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131na ta\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu kitab\u0131nda zaman zaman \u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019a g\u00f6ndermeler yapan K\u0101s\u0131m Em\u00een, daha sonra kaleme ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 el-Mer\u02beet\u00fc\u2019l-ced\u00eede\u2019de b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle Bat\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve uygulamas\u0131n\u0131 esas alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n \u0130ran\u2019da da kad\u0131n hareketinin ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131 XIX. y\u00fczy\u0131lda ba\u015flar. Bu d\u00f6nemde baz\u0131 \u0130ranl\u0131 kad\u0131nlar\u0131n yabanc\u0131 okullarda e\u011fitim ald\u0131klar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir. 1838\u2019de k\u0131zlar i\u00e7in Presbiteryen misyonerler taraf\u0131ndan bir ilkokul a\u00e7\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bunu 1865\u2019te \u0130sfahan ve Tebriz\u2019de, 1875\u2019te Tahran\u2019da a\u00e7\u0131lan okullarla Ermeni ve yahudi az\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131n muhtelif \u015fehirlerde a\u00e7t\u0131klar\u0131 mektepler takip eder. M\u00fcsl\u00fcman k\u0131zlar i\u00e7in ilk okulu 1903\u2019te Mirza Hasan R\u00fc\u015fdiyye a\u00e7m\u0131\u015f, bunlar\u0131n say\u0131lar\u0131 k\u0131sa zamanda artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. 1911\u2019de sadece Tahran\u2019da k\u0131zlar i\u00e7in k\u0131rk yedi okul bulunmakta ve bu okullarda 2187 \u00f6\u011frenci okumaktayd\u0131. 1910\u2019da bir kad\u0131n taraf\u0131ndan ilk defa D\u00e2ni\u015f ad\u0131yla bir dergi yay\u0131mlan\u0131r. Bunu 1913\u2019te Meryem \u00dcmm\u00eed M\u00fczeyyen\u2019in \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015e\u00fck\u00fbfe, 1919\u2019da S\u0131dd\u0131ka Devlet\u00e2b\u00e2d\u00ee\u2019nin yay\u0131mlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 Zeb\u00e2n-\u0131 Zen\u00e2n ve di\u011ferleri takip eder. XIX. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda kad\u0131n hareketi ilk defa siyas\u00ee alanda g\u00f6r\u00fcnmeye ba\u015flar. 1891\u2019deki t\u00fct\u00fcn boykotunda kad\u0131nlar aktif rol oynarlar. 1906 anayasas\u0131n\u0131n kabul\u00fcyle sonu\u00e7lanan ayaklanmada da bu rol\u00fcn\u00fcn k\u00f6kle\u015fti\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bunu takip eden otuz y\u0131l boyunca kad\u0131n hareketi \u0130ran\u2019da \u00f6nemli bir yer i\u015fgal etmi\u015ftir. Enc\u00fcmen-i \u00c2z\u00e2d\u00ee-i Zen\u00e2n gibi derneklerin kurulmas\u0131 bu d\u00f6neme rastlar.<\/p>\n Bu geli\u015fmeler, \u0130sl\u00e2m d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda iki ayr\u0131 istikamette bir kad\u0131n hareketinin ba\u015flamas\u0131 sonucunu do\u011furmu\u015ftur. Bunlardan biri, \u0130sl\u00e2m k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcne ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131k endi\u015fesi ta\u015f\u0131maks\u0131z\u0131n kad\u0131n\u0131n ferd\u00ee ve sosyal konumunu de\u011fi\u015ftirmeyi hedefleyen hareket olup hukuk alan\u0131nda da k\u00f6kl\u00fc de\u011fi\u015fiklikler getirmi\u015ftir. Buna T\u00fcrkiye, Tunus ve devrim \u00f6ncesi \u0130ran \u00f6rnek olarak g\u00f6sterilebilir. S\u00f6z konusu \u00fclkelerde bir taraftan kad\u0131n\u0131n Bat\u0131 tipi bir modernle\u015fme s\u00fcrecinin gereklerine uymas\u0131 te\u015fvik edilir ve bazan zorunlu k\u0131l\u0131n\u0131rken di\u011fer taraftan bunu destekleyen hukuk\u00ee d\u00fczenlemeler yap\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130kincisi, \u0130sl\u00e2m k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcne ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131k ilkesini korumakla birlikte gelenek ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel etkilerle din\u00eele\u015ftirilen baz\u0131 uygulama ve anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n terkedilmesi gerekti\u011fini savunan, kad\u0131n\u0131n sosyal ve hukuk\u00ee konumunda yeni anlay\u0131\u015f ve ihtiya\u00e7lar \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131nda de\u011fi\u015fiklikler yapma gere\u011fini duyan harekettir. Bu hareket XX. y\u00fczy\u0131l itibariyle Osmanl\u0131 Devleti\u2019nde, M\u0131s\u0131r, \u00dcrd\u00fcn, Pakistan, Irak, Suriye, Malezya gibi \u00fclkelerde etkili olmu\u015ftur. \u0130kinci grup \u00fclkelerde XX. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren ba\u015flayan kanunla\u015ft\u0131rma hareketlerinde tek bir mezhebe ba\u011fl\u0131 kalma uygulamas\u0131 terkedilmi\u015f, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde yayg\u0131n olan b\u00fct\u00fcn \u0130sl\u00e2m\u00ee mezheplerin yorumlar\u0131ndan yararlan\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu eklektik anlay\u0131\u015f \u00f6zellikle evlenme ehliyeti i\u00e7in belli bir ya\u015f s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n\u0131n aranmas\u0131, temyiz g\u00fcc\u00fc olmayanlar\u0131n evlenmesine getirilen s\u0131n\u0131rlama, ikinci evlili\u011fin birinci e\u015fin veya mahkemenin iznine ba\u011flanmas\u0131, bo\u015fanma ehliyetine getirilen k\u0131s\u0131tlama, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n mahkeme karar\u0131yla bo\u015fanma imk\u00e2nlar\u0131n\u0131n geni\u015fletilmesi konular\u0131nda kendini g\u00f6stermektedir. Her iki g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f de halen bir\u00e7ok \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00fclkesinde ciddi bir taraftar kitlesine sahip bulunmakta ve kad\u0131nlar\u0131 ilgilendiren geli\u015fmeleri kendi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceleri istikametinde etkilemeyi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmektedir. Afganistan, Suudi Arabistan ve k\u0131smen devrim sonras\u0131nda \u0130ran gibi \u00fclkelerde kad\u0131n\u0131n hukuk\u00ee ve sosyal stat\u00fcs\u00fc konusunda klasik yorumlara ba\u011fl\u0131 kalma ve bunu zorunlu olarak uygulama anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclmektedir.<\/p>\n B\u0130BL\u0130YOGRAFYA https:\/\/islamansiklopedisi.org.tr\/kadin<\/p>\n *<\/p>\n D\u00d6NEK, her d\u00f6nemin yarat\u0131\u011f\u0131. \u0130\u011freniyorum b\u00f6ylelerinden<\/p>\n
\n\u00d6MER FARUK HARMAN
\n\u0130sl\u00e2m \u00d6ncesi Dinlerde ve Toplumlarda Kad\u0131n.
\nKad\u0131n\u0131n yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131, k\u0131z \u00e7ocuk, e\u015f ve anne olarak konumu, erkek kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131ndaki stat\u00fcs\u00fc, ferd\u00ee ve i\u00e7tima\u00ee hayattaki hak ve y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fckleri gibi a\u00e7\u0131lardan tarih boyunca birbirinden \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 telakki ve uygulamalara konu olmas\u0131, toplumsal yap\u0131yla oldu\u011fu kadar din ve \u00f6\u011fretilerin bu alanda getirdi\u011fiyle de yak\u0131ndan ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 bir husustur.<\/p>\n
\nH. Lesetre, \u201cMariage\u201d, DB, IV\/1, s. 758-773; J. Plessis, \u201cBabylone et la Bible\u201d, DBS, I, 800-815; Ch. F. Jean, \u201cHammurapi\u201d, a.e., III, 1379-1408; R. Paribeni, Roma Ailesi (trc. \u015eemseddin Talib), \u0130stanbul 1935, t\u00fcr.yer.; Sadri Maksudi Arsal, T\u00fcrk Tarihi ve Hukuk, \u0130stanbul 1947, s. 338; A. Muhibbe Darga, Eski Anadoluda Kad\u0131n, \u0130stanbul 1976, s. 5-16; 99-104; a.mlf., \u201cAnadolu Tarihi \u00c7a\u011flar\u0131nda Kad\u0131n\u201d, \u00c7a\u011flarboyu Anadoluda Kad\u0131n, \u0130stanbul 1993, s. 26-35; a.mlf., \u201cRoma Uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Kad\u0131n\u0131n Yeri\u201d, a.e., s. 121-124; a.mlf., \u201cYunan \/ Helen Uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Kad\u0131n\u201d, a.e., s. 118-120; Edibe Uzuno\u011flu, \u201cTarih \u00d6ncesinden Demir \u00c7a\u011fa Anadoluda Kad\u0131n\u201d, a.e., s. 16-24; N. Necibo\u011flu, \u201cBizans\u2019ta Kad\u0131nlar\u201d, a.e., s. 125-131; A. Sharma, Women in World Religions, New York 1987; S. H. Hooke, Ortado\u011fu Mitolojisi (trc. Alaeddin \u015eenel), Ankara 1993, s. 46-47; Z. Ediz, Kad\u0131nlar\u0131n Tarihine Giri\u015f, \u0130stanbul 1995, s. 15-21; S. N. Kramer, S\u00fcmer Mitolojisi (trc. Hamide Koyukan), \u0130stanbul 1999, s.131-141; F. Grendon, \u201cFeminism\u201d, EAm., XI,107-112; Afet \u0130nan, \u201cKad\u0131n Haklar\u0131\u201d, TA, XXI, 91-92; H. H. Cohn, \u201cWitness\u201d, EJd., XVI, 586; L. Jacobs, \u201cWomen\u201d, a.e., XVI, 623-628; Dictionnaire encyclopedique du Juda\u00efsme (ed. G. Wigoder v.d\u011fr.), Paris 1993, s. 283-284, 321, 403-405.
\nMaddenin bu b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc TDV \u0130sl\u00e2m Ansiklopedisi\u2019nin 2001 y\u0131l\u0131nda \u0130stanbul\u2019da bas\u0131lan 24. cildinde, 82-86 numaral\u0131 sayfalarda yer alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Matbu n\u00fcshay\u0131 pdf dosyas\u0131 olarak indirmek i\u00e7in t\u0131klay\u0131n\u0131z.<\/p>\n
\nM\u00fcellif:
\nMEHMET \u00c2K\u0130F AYDIN
\n\u0130sl\u00e2m\u2019da Kad\u0131n. \u0130sl\u00e2m toplumlar\u0131nda kad\u0131n\u0131n gerek aile hayat\u0131nda gerekse siyas\u00ee, hukuk\u00ee, sosyal ve ekonomik alanlardaki konumunu bir taraftan din\u00ee kurallar, di\u011fer taraftan sosyal ve siyas\u00ee \u00e7evre, etnik yap\u0131 ve \u0130sl\u00e2m \u00f6ncesinden gelen k\u00fclt\u00fcr miras\u0131 belirlemi\u015ftir. Bu sebeple \u0130sl\u00e2m d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda kad\u0131n\u0131n her yerde ve her d\u00f6nemde ayn\u0131 konumda oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir. Hatta ayn\u0131 b\u00f6lgede ve ayn\u0131 zaman dilimi i\u00e7inde ya\u015fayan kad\u0131nlar aras\u0131nda bile \u015fehirde veya k\u0131rsal kesimde bulunmalar\u0131na g\u00f6re farkl\u0131l\u0131klar olmu\u015ftur. Ancak bu, \u0130sl\u00e2m toplumlar\u0131ndaki kad\u0131nlar\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle farkl\u0131 kimlikleri temsil etti\u011fi anlam\u0131na da gelmez; onlar sosyal, hukuk\u00ee ve ekonomik konum bak\u0131m\u0131ndan her d\u00f6nemde belirli ortak \u00e7izgilere sahip olmu\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n
\nTay\u00e2lis\u00ee, M\u00fcsned (n\u015fr. Muhammed b. Abd\u00fclmuhsin et-T\u00fcrk\u00ee), C\u00eeze 1420\/1999, III, 124; M\u00fcsned, I, 168; II, 126; V, 50, 51; VI, 84; D\u00e2rim\u00ee, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 223; Buh\u00e2r\u00ee, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 108, \u201c\u02bf\u00cedeyn\u201d, 15, \u201cMe\u0121\u0101z\u00ee\u201d, 82, \u201cFiten\u201d, 18, \u201cCih\u00e2d\u201d, 47, \u201c\u1e6c\u0131b\u201d, 43; M\u00fcslim, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 47, 50, 51, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u00fc\u2019l-\u02bf\u00eedeyn\u201d, 1, 3, 4, 9, \u201cSel\u00e2m\u201d, 110-120, \u201c\u1e24ac\u201d, 147; Eb\u00fb D\u00e2v\u00fbd, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 53, 101, 109, 111, 240, \u201cA\u1e33\u017c\u0131ye\u201d, 17, \u201cMen\u00e2sik\u201d, 56, \u201c\u1e6c\u0131b\u201d, 24; \u0130bn M\u00e2ce, \u201cA\u1e25k\u00e2m\u201d, 30, \u201c\u0130\u1e33\u0101met\u00fc\u2019\u1e63-\u1e63al\u00e2t\u201d, 36, 165, \u201cNik\u00e2\u1e25\u201d, 51, \u201cFiten\u201d, 19; Tirmiz\u00ee, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u201d, 109, 136, \u201cFiten\u201d, 75, \u201cCum\u02bfa\u201d, 32, \u201cTefs\u00eer\u201d, 9; Nes\u00e2\u00ee, \u201c\u1e32\u0131ble\u201d, 7, 10, \u201c\u1e62al\u00e2t\u00fc\u2019l-\u02bf\u00eedeyn\u201d, 3, 4; \u0130bn Sa\u2018d, e\u1e6d-\u1e6caba\u1e33\u0101t, Leiden 1322, V, 16-17; Taber\u00ee, C\u00e2mi\u02bfu\u2019l-bey\u00e2n (Bulak), XXVIII, 51; \u0130bn Kes\u00eer, el-Bid\u00e2ye, Beyrut 1400, VII, 146; Makr\u00eez\u00ee, el-\u1e2a\u0131\u1e6da\u1e6d, II, 454; \u0130stanbul Vak\u0131flar\u0131 Tahrir Defteri 953 (1546), s. V; M\u00fcttak\u012b el-Hind\u00ee, Kenz\u00fc\u2019l-\u02bfumm\u00e2l, XVI, 371, 374, 376-377; K\u0101s\u0131m Em\u00een, H\u00fcrriyet-i Nisv\u00e2n (trc. Zek\u00ee Mug\u0101miz), \u0130stanbul 1329; R. Levy, The Social Structure of Islam, Cambridge 1962, s. 144-146; \u00d6mer L\u00fctfi Barkan, \u201cEdirne Askeri Kassam\u0131na Ait Tereke Defterleri (1545-1659)\u201d, BTTD, III\/5-6 (1968), s. 1-479; Mustafa es-Sib\u00e2\u00ee, el-Mer\u02bee beyne\u2019l-f\u0131\u1e33h ve\u2019l-\u1e33\u0101n\u00fbn, Beyrut 1975; C. Waddy, Women in Muslim History, Longman-London 1980; Bosworth, \u0130sl\u00e2m Devletleri Tarihi, t\u00fcr.yer.; Ham\u00eedullah, \u0130sl\u00e2m Peygamberi, II, 715-746, 836, 1108-1160; M. \u00c2kif Ayd\u0131n, \u0130sl\u00e2m-Osmanl\u0131 Aile Hukuku, \u0130stanbul 1981, t\u00fcr.yer.; a.mlf., \u201cOsmanl\u0131 Hukukunda Kazai Bo\u015fanma, Tefrik\u201d, Osm.Ar., V (1986), s. 1-12; a.mlf., \u201cOsmanl\u0131 Toplumunda Kad\u0131n ve Tanzimat Sonras\u0131 Geli\u015fmeler\u201d, Sosyal Hayatta Kad\u0131n (haz. \u0130smail Kurt – Seyid Ali T\u00fcz), \u0130stanbul 1996, s. 143-156; Ali Bardako\u011flu, \u201cCahiliye D\u00f6neminde Kad\u0131n\u201d, a.e., s. 9-16; Bernard Caporal, Kemalizmde ve Kemalizm Sonras\u0131nda T\u00fcrk Kad\u0131n\u0131, Ankara 1982; Abd\u00fclm\u00fcn\u2018im Sult\u00e2n, el-M\u00fcctema\u02bfu\u2019l-M\u0131\u1e63r\u00ee fi\u2019l-\u02bfa\u1e63ri\u2019l-F\u00e2\u1e6d\u0131m\u00ee, Kahire 1405\/1985, s. 115-120; F. Davis, The Ottoman Lady, Westport 1986; H\u00fcseyin \u00d6zde\u011fer, 1463-1640 Y\u0131llar\u0131 Aras\u0131nda Bursa \u015eehri Tereke Defterleri, \u0130stanbul 1988, s. 50; Abd\u00fclhal\u00eem M. Eb\u00fb \u015eukka, Ta\u1e25r\u00eer\u00fc\u2019l-mer\u02bee f\u00ee \u02bfa\u1e63ri\u2019r-ris\u00e2le, K\u00fcveyt 1990, I-IV, t\u00fcr.yer.; Fatima Mernissi, The Veil and the Male Elit: A Feminist Interpretation of Women\u2019s Rights in Islam (trc. Mary Jo Lakeland), Addison 1991, t\u00fcr.yer.; Huda Lutfi, \u201cManners and Customs of Fourteenth Century Cairene Women\u201d, Women in Middle Eastern History, Shifting Boundaries in Sex and Gender (ed. N. R. Keddie – B. Baron), New Haven 1991, s. 99-121; Nermin Abadan Unat, \u201cThe Impact of Legal and Educational Reforms on Turkish Women\u201d, a.e., s. 177-194; J. E. Tucker, \u201cTies That Bound: Women and Family in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Nablus\u201d, a.e., s. 236-253; \u00d6mer Demirel v.d\u011fr., \u201cOsmanl\u0131larda Ailenin Demografik Yap\u0131s\u0131\u201d, Sosyo-K\u00fclt\u00fcrel De\u011fi\u015fim S\u00fcrecinde T\u00fcrk Ailesi, Ankara 1992 I, 97-161; Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam, Roots of a Modern Debate, New Haven 1992; Haji Faisal Bin Haji Othman, Woman, Islam and Nation Building, Kuala Lumpur 1993; Abd\u00fclker\u00eem Zeyd\u00e2n, el-Mufa\u1e63\u1e63al f\u00ee a\u1e25k\u00e2mi\u2019l-mer\u02bee ve\u2019l-beyti\u2019l-m\u00fcslim, Beyrut 1993, I-XI, t\u00fcr.yer.; H. 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